WHAT’S THE GANG
WEARING?:
AN EXPLORATORY AND DESCRIPTIVE
ANALYSIS OF POLICE GANG UNIFORMS

COLTON LAZAROWICH & DR. KEIRON MCCONNELL
KWANTLEN POLYTECHNIC UNIVERSITY

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WHAT’S THE GANG WEARING?:
AN EXPLORATORY AND DESCRIPTIVE ANALYSIS OF POLICE GANG UNIFORMS

AUTHORS

Colton Lazarowich & Dr. Keiron McConnell

ABSTRACT
Previous studies on police uniforms have found uniform color and style continue
to evolve as do the dynamics around police uniforms and citizen impression. Given no
research has been done specifically on police gang unit uniforms, this study was
exploratory and aimed to determine if there was a visual standard regarding the
operational appearance of police gang unit uniforms in Canada and the United States.
Using targeted and purposive sampling the researcher collected 64 samples of digital
images containing police gang unit officers in uniform for content analysis. The analyzed
data yielded quantitative statistics that were applied to the primary research question.
These statistics found that police gang unit officers in Canada and the United States are
most likely to deploy in a unit-specific police uniform, that is black in color, visually
identifies as a gang unit (by patch or crest), and be wearing external body armor that is
black in color. The researcher suggests the study’s findings be applied to further
research to determine the potential implications police gang crime unit uniforms may
have on citizen impression. All of which contributes to the ongoing debates around the
militarization of the police.

Key Words: police gang unit, gangs, uniform, police uniform, uniform color,
militarization, social construction

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Table of Contents
Problem Statement .......................................................................................................... 4
Literature Review............................................................................................................. 4
Theory ............................................................................................................................. 7
Methodology .................................................................................................................. 11
Results........................................................................................................................... 13
Limitations ..................................................................................................................... 28
Recommendations......................................................................................................... 29
Conclusion ..................................................................................................................... 30

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Problem Statement
The central question that this research sought to answer was to determine if
there is a “visual standard” around operational appearance for police gang crime unit
uniforms. To do so, the author conducted an analysis of the daily duty attire for police
gang units in Canada and the United States. The research is exploratory and descriptive
in nature.

Literature Review
How do we know a police officer when we see one? Is it the vehicle, the lights,
the sirens, the uniform, or the badge? Furthermore, once we have identified someone
as a police officer, how do we differentiate between patrol constables to specialized
police officers? As a society, we use labels to identify things. Labels come from all sorts
of external variables that surround us (Berger, Luckmann, & Zifonun, 2002; Boghossian,
2001). A police officers uniform serves to generate one of those labels. At the onset of
this research, it became evident that there is limited research on police uniforms and
exceedingly limited research on specialized police unit uniforms, such as police gang
units. To understand modern uniform impression and uniform functionality, the evolution
of policing must first be examined (Johnson, Plecas, Anderson, & Dolan, 2015).
The first application of standardized uniforms in North America comprised of royal
blue uniforms used by the New York City Police Department (NYPD), which were first
supplied in 1871and were based off the appearance of Sir Robert Peel’s British police
uniforms. The original NYPD uniform included a hat, tie, and button up coat - several
formal features that helped contribute to the evolving visual cues that led to today’s
ceremonial police uniforms (Lentz & Chaires, 2007). In the late 1800’s and early 1900’s,

5

police uniforms shifted away from formal dress and evolved into a functional attire that
had more similarities to civilian clothing. During this time period, specialized police
branches, such as detectives and sheriffs, wore civilian clothing with only their badge as
their identifying marker. Since the late 1990’s, uniforms became progressively less
formal and they seemed to evolve around functionality, though there continues to be
significant variance between departments, organizations, cities and countries (Johnston,
2005).
The bulk of research on the subject of police uniforms focuses on color. In
Johnson’s (2005) study on citizen impressions of police uniform color, the overall theme
was that black colored police uniforms produced the most negative first impressions
from citizens. However, it is also noted that having a much lighter uniform, such as an all
khaki uniform, does not elicit more positive impressions of police from citizens (Johnson,
2005). Interestingly, the most positive citizen impressions were of uniforms that were a
light blue shirt and navy pant Perhaps other police artifacts such as a duty belt, sidearm, and tactical vest could impact citizen impression on the corresponding uniform
colour(s). Since Johnsons (2005) study, new research has contradicted his findings. In
Nickels (2007) article, Good Guys Wear Black: uniform color and citizen impressions of

police, the goal was to examine whether officers uniform color influences public
impression of officer character. This study used a convenience sample of university
undergraduates who were surveyed using digitally manipulated photographs of officers’
race, posture, and uniform color. The study found that uniform color does influence
impression formation, but not in the expected manner, finding that black uniforms
resulted in a more positive impression of officers compared to lighter uniforms.

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A critique of many police uniform studies is that the focus is often solely on
uniform color and other items such as duty belt, weapons, or vests are examined –
raising the question of whether other police artifacts or visible markers impact citizen
impression, in addition to uniform colour(s). In a study done by Johnson, Plecas,
Anderson and Dolan (2013) entitled No Hat or Tie Required: Examining Minor Changes

to the Police Uniform, the goal was to determine if police officer uniforms that included a
hat and tie influenced citizen impression. The study took place in the Southeastern
United States and conducted phone surveys to people after police interaction to
determine if the presence or absence of a hat and tie influenced citizen impression
during any encounters with the police. The findings suggest that police uniform policies
that require a hat and or tie is solely an issue of police agency preference as neither the
hat and tie were not found to improve or worsen citizen impression towards police
officers (Johnson et al., 2013).
An interesting approach to uniform research was utilized by Cooke (2005) in A

Policing Family, which is critical lens used to examine perceptions of police. Cooke
2005) suggests that through there is a decline in familiarity between citizen and police
officer stemming from the evolution of policing methods, technological advances, private
security functions, and legislations that govern various public and private agencies. He
particularly suggests that specialized police units who deal with guns, drugs, or gangs
are identified by an extra, exterior badge that informs the public, at least to some extent,
of what that specialized units mandate is. That said, unfamiliarity with the function of that
unit, coupled with one’s subjective interpretation of that specialized unit’s identification
badge, may affect public perceptions of the uniforms. It is also not known how this

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decline in citizen and police officer familiarity affects citizen impression towards police
officers.
Police uniforms evolve to better serve the public. There is a certain ability of a
police uniform to induce subordination, inspire trust, and compel behavior. How an
officer’s uniform achieves these effects is not yet explored in the literature. The literature
has also yet to explore how different variations of police officer uniform design may alter
the findings of citizen impression. It would be useful to deconstruct the ideologies
around police uniform and citizen impression formation through a social constructionist
lens to better understand how officer uniform and citizen impression relate to one
another.

Theory
Social construction theory may provide a useful lens in understanding how citizen
impression varies between the subjective external reality of police uniform as artifacts
and how that is internalized by the public through belief systems within a community
(Johnson, 2005; Berger et al., 2002). In the book “The Social Construction of Reality”
(2002) by Berger et al., suggests that concepts of both internal and external reality are
linked to the ideologies of social construction. These may also be referred to as
objective reality and subjective reality. Objective reality is the physical make-up of the
external world that can be visually analyzed, while subjective reality is how the individual
analyzes, and then internalizes, the external reality (Boghossian, 2001). This notion of
reality is also liked to the primary and secondary socialization process of identity
formation. In simpler terms, children learn about the external world through what they
are told and taught during their primary socialization period (Boghossian, 2001). During

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this period, a child will begin to internalize concepts of their external social world that
they will carry with them into their secondary period of socialization. Although social
construction theory is not temporal, identity formations over primary and secondary
socialization periods are temporal. It is noted that the longer a child or youth has outside
influences shaping their socialization processes, the more internalized these belief
systems will become. Subsequently, the cognitive window for altering the internalization
of subjective identity through objective reality narrows (Berger, et al., 2002). Within
theories of identity formation, it is noted that social construction is concerned with the
sociology of knowledge. Knowledge is socially distributed, and the mechanisms by
which it is distributed make up the primary focus of social construction (Berger, et al.,
2002).
Within a policing context, people can internalize both conscious belief systems
and subconscious macro-aggressions during socialization periods in our lives, which
then may contribute to our internal belief systems (Sue & Sue, 1990). A person may
have never had a negative experience with the police, but due to the social construction
of the external belief systems they are socialized with, they may internalize a subjective
bias. A subjective bias which they may then project onto the objective realties of police
based off visual cues of socially constructed artifacts such as police uniform
(Boghossian, 2001). To articulate this further, an example might be a single, isolated
case of a police officer using excessive force is reported at a disproportionate rate within
the media. Through the socialization process of social construction theory, any viewer
may internalize the individual characteristics of how that single officer appears through
their uniform style, uniform color, race, or age. That same viewer is then encapsulated
within their own subjective reality of what they believe a police officer is, or does, or

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should be, and they may project these internal belief systems onto the external reality of
all police officers.
The media’s role in this process also increases public awareness of behaviors
that have been labelled deviant or defined as problematic. This leads us to the
understanding that actual increases in crime can be caused by one of three variables:
I) Actual rises and falls in real crime.
II) Changes in socially constructed fear towards crime prevalence.
III) Reclassification of activities as criminal, (Miller, 2009).

To illustrate these variables, I draw on a personal example from an upper level
criminology lecture on community safety and crime prevention:

My professor asked the class what we thought the top 3 reported crimes (UCR data)
were in the city of Surrey, British Columbia; excluding driving offences. We were asked
this question because, how is society supposed to work on preventing crime if first we
don’t know what the most prevalent crimes are? Most the class reported assault, theft
and robbery. Some even mentioned crimes resulting in death, like manslaughter. In
reality, the top 3 offences were: nuisance, disturbing the peace and theft under $5000
from automobiles (Dr. Greg Jenion, personal communication, 2014).
This example showcases a class of 30 upper level criminology students who are
arguably more informed regarding issues of crime than the general population. Yet, as a
class we still fell short at identifying what the top three crimes were. Perhaps because of

variable II and the perceived fear of certain crimes; perceptions by which we would have
absorbed through the media’s over representation of crimes. In response to the socially
constructed mechanisms of uniform impression and how the media reports, or perhaps
distorts society, can be influenced into a state of moral panic.

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It is within these situations that it is important to acknowledge the social
constructionism of crime and the importance of examining how crime is constructed,
deconstructed, and reconstructed. Once we better understand this process we can then
address the implications of such constructions and apply them to situational encounters
of impression. That is, police officers uniform impression on citizens.
Terminology

Gangs
The term gang is not universal. It means something different depending on place
and time. If there was a universal definition of gang, it would pose a risk to exclude
certain groups that may exhibit gang like behaviors, or it could possibly include too
many aspects of groups; making the scope of addressing gang activity too difficult
(McConnell, 2015).

Police Uniform
Clothing, in general, is a key factor in making judgement about a person based
off their appearance. Understanding the dynamic around how clothing acts as a visual
cue to relay information from one person to another is important as it has been found to
be a main factor in first impressions. From first impressions, we interpret status,
authority, and attitudes from a person based off appearance. While this does not just
apply to uniform, the phenomena is arguably heightened with regards to police uniform,
as it has been found that police uniform not only acts as a visual cue for impression, but
the uniform can elicit positive behaviors when in proximity (Johnson, 2005). However,
‘police uniform’, as a term, lacks any universal definition and, therefore, can present as

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a contested topic. Given that a police uniform can be a contested topic, the very use of
the terminology can mean something different in different settings. Within the setting of
police gang unit uniforms, uniforms are an evolving attire worn by officers who deal with
gang members. Just as those police gang unit officers’ unit titles may differ, their
uniform styles may differ. How those uniforms come to be defined, may also differ.
However, the lack of universal definition around uniforms does not affect how the study
unpacks its findings with regards to police gang unit uniforms.

Methodology
The project design was split into four phases.
Phase 1 - Literature review:
From September to November 2016, the researcher conducted a detailed review
of the academic literature related to the evolution of police uniforms, social
constructionist theory, and police uniform studies, particularly content analysis of digital
media.
Phase 2 - Sampling procedure design and implementation
Purposive sampling was used because to draw a very specific targeted sample:
uniforms of police gang units in North America. First, to gain a scope of police agencies
to include in the research, a preliminary list was created of all the provinces in Canada
and all the States in the United States. Once a list was generated, the researcher
searched each state and province to determine what the largest city or cities were within
each province and state. The list of major cities acted as a preliminary list for sampling.
The researcher wanted to include at least one police gang unit uniform analysis from

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each State in the US and each Province in Canada. This was not possible because not
all states or provinces had police gang units. The sample criteria for the studies data
samples of digital media were:
a) The image sample had to be in color and with enough lighting to determine uniform
color; this excluded any greyscale images.
b) The image sample had to contain a date stamp to control for temporality.
c) The image sample had to contain the upper body of the police gang unit officers’
uniform.
d) The image sample had to be linked to a website or article that contained a description
of the photo.
e) The image sample description had to state the officers in the photo were part of a
gang unit.
f) The image sample had to be of high enough resolution to analyze the sample as per
the research study’s sub-questions.
g) The image must have contained a physical person in the gang unit uniform.

Phase 3 - Data collection:
From December 2016 to February 2017, the researcher conducted data
collection using content analysis of public sourced digital media. All data was searched
and retrieved from a Google Chrome internet browser search. After extensive searches,
the researcher yielded 64 data samples listed in alphabetical order by country and then
by province or state1 (see Appendix A).
Phase 4 - Data analysis:

The sample names of police gang units may be different from gang unit titles analyzed in the
samples because the sample analysis is done solely on what the uniform says the unit identifies
as. Whereas sample titles identify corresponding to what the police units’ title is on paper.
1

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Data analysis was conducted by visually examining all 64 of the data sample
images in order to answer the following research sub-questions:
1) Are the officers in uniform?
2) Are the officers in plain clothes?
3) Are the officers in hybrid2?
4) What color is the uniform?
5) Does the uniform say Gang Unit? (If not, what synonyms are used).
6) What words are used to describe the unit? (Examples: gang crime unit, violent
suppression team, gang squad, etc.).
7) Is the officers vest internal or external?
8) What color is the officers vest?

Results
The central research question of this project sought to generate insight into the
daily duty attire for police gang units in Canada and the United States with the aim to
determine if there is a "visual standard" around their operational appearance; being
uniforms, plainclothes, or hybrid. Along with this central question, six research subquestions were used in the visual analysis of the data samples. After collecting a total of
64 digital images of police gang crime unit officers in uniform, the researcher analyzed
all 64 samples and generated the following quantitative statistics. This section illustrates
the findings derived from the study. These findings are shown quantitatively and
illustrated with statistics and visuals. The questions follow in the same order as the
aforementioned research sub-question.

2

Hybrid is defined as regular clothes with any police garment.

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1. “Are the gang crime unit officers in uniform, plain clothes, or hybrid?”

Out of 64 samples, one sample included two officers and was used twice for this
question giving a total yield of 65 for this question. The findings suggest that 63% (n=41)
officers deploy in uniform, 35% (n=23) officers deploy in a hybrid capacity and 2% (n=1)
officers deploy in plain clothes [Figure 1].
Figure 1

HOW DO THE OFFICERS OPERATIONALIZE?

35%

Uniform
Plain Clothes

2%

63%

Hybrid

2. “What color is the officers’ uniform3?”

Out of 64 samples two samples were used twice for this question, given a total
yield of 66 for this question. The findings suggest that 68% (n=45) gang crime unit

Officer uniform, as it relates to this research question, was limited to upper body attire only.
Previous research has restricted officer uniform to upper body attire only. This restriction to
upper body only is justified because most police encounters are in mobilized encounters. That
being either in passing as one drives passed an officer in their vehicle, where their lower body is
not visible; or during a traffic stop where an officer has pulled a person over and the vehicle
door blocks the lower body of the officer (Johnson, 2005).
3

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officers deploy in uniform. While the remaining 32% (n=21) do not deploy in a
standardized uniform.
Furthermore the 68% (n=45) that do deploy in uniform were analyzed for uniform
color. The findings suggest that, of that 45 samples who deploy in uniform, 67% (n=30)
deploy in a black uniform, 2 (n=10) deploy in a dark navy uniform, 4% (n=2) deploy in a
green uniform, 2% (n=1) deploy in a light grey uniform, 2% (n=1) deploy in a light blue
uniform, and 2% (n=1) deploy in an orange uniform. Figure 2 illustrates how the uniform
colors compare to one another.
Figure 2

WHAT COLOR IS THE UNIFORM?
35
30
25

30

20
15
10

10

5
0
Black

Dark Navy

1

1

2

1

Light Grey

Light Blue

Green

Orange

3. “Does the uniform specifically say gang unit?”

Out of the 64 samples each sample was used only once, giving a total yield of 64
for this question. The findings suggest that 66% (n=42) of samples have “unit
identification” of some kind. Which leaves 34% (n=22) of samples that do not have any
specific gang unit identification and/or the sample lacked certainty regarding unit
identification.

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Of those 42 samples that have unit identification 57% (n=24) specifically identify
as being a “gang unit.” While the other 43% (n=18) identify as a unit by using some form
of synonyms for “gang unit.” Taking the sample as a whole, 38% (n=24) identify as gang
unit, 28% (n=18) identify with a synonym to gang unit, and 34% (n=22) lack unit-specific
identification. Figure 3 illustrates the total breakdown of unit identification as it relates to
sub-question three.
Figure 3

DOES THE UNIFORM SAY "GANG UNIT?"

Yes

34%

38%

No - Uses Synonyms
N/A - No Specific Unit
Identification

28%

4. “What words are used to describe the unit?”

Building off question three, question four illustrates the remaining unit identifiers4
that are used to describe the police gang unit but are identified by another label. Given
that 38% (n=24) sample in question three identify specifically as a gang unit and 34%

Unit identifiers, with regards to this question, are limited to the visible representation of
what the physical uniform states the units’ identification is.
4

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(n=22) of the sample have no specific identificatio, question four applies only to the
remaining 18 of the 64 samples.
The remaining 18 samples identify as follows: 4 out of the 18 identify as being a
“Gang Task Force”, 3 out of 18 identifies as being “Gang Enforcement”, 1 out of 18
identifies as “Dart”, 1 out of 18 identifies as being a “Gang Crime Unit”, 1 out of 18
identifies as being a “Gang Detail”, 1 out of 18 identifies as being a “Gang Enforcement
Team”, 1 out of 18 identifies as being “Gang Suppression”, 1 out of 18 identifies as
being a “Gang Tactical Unit”, 1 out of the 18 identifies as being a “Gang Squad”, 1 out of
the 18 identifies as “Guns & Gangs”, 1 out of the 18 identifies as being a “Multi Agency
Gang Task Force”, 1 out of the 18 identifies as being a “Street Crime Unit”, and 1 out of
18 identifies as being a “Viper Unit.” Figure 4 illustrates these findings and how they
compare to one another with regards to sub-question four.
Figure 4

WHAT WORDS ARE USED TO DESCRIBE THE
UNIT?
WHAT WORDS ARE USED TO DESCRIBE THE UNIT?

4
3
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1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

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1

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5. “Is the officers vest internal or external?”

Out of the 64 data samples collected, 4 samples were used twice for this
question because officers had both internal and external vests within the same sample,
giving a total yield of 68 for this research question. The data suggests that 43% (n=29)
gang unit officers deploy with their vests being internal (under their uniform). While 57%
(n=39) gang unit officers deploy with their vests being external (over-top of their
uniform). Figure 5 illustrates the comparison between gang unit officers that deploy with
internal and external vests.
Figure 5

IS THE OFFICERS VEST INTERNAL OR
EXTERNAL?

43%
57%

INTERNAL
EXTERNAL

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6. “What color is the officers vest?”

Of the 64 data samples collected 7 were used twice 5 for a total yield of 71 for this
research question. The data suggests that 59% (n=42) have external vests. While 41%
(n=29) do not have external vests, and could not be visually assessed for color.
The research team found that 83% (n=35) of samples that had external vests
were black in color, 10% (n=4) of vests were green in color, 5% (n=2) were tan in color,
and 2% (n=1) were dark navy in color. Figure 6 illustrates the distribution of external
vest colors among gang unit police officers.
Figure 6

WHAT COLOR IS THE OFFICERS VEST?
40
35
30

35

25
20
15
10
5
0
Black

1

4

2

Dark Navy

Green

Tan

WHAT COLOR IS THE OFFICERS VEST?

The sample total in question six is greater because multiple officers had external vests
that differed in color, which required that they be counted twice in regards to question
six, but only counted once as being external vests in question five.
5

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Themes
This section will discuss the study’s findings. Part of this discussion will be
unpacking the core themes inferred from the research sub-questions findings and how
these findings relate to the projects primary research question. To be reflexive in the
research the findings will be connected back to previous research, assess correlations
of new findings, and discuss limitations of the findings in this study.
As the findings are primarily concerned with the visual appearance of police gang
unit uniforms, we feel it is useful to briefly unpack the terminology of “uniform” first.
Clothing in general is a key factor in determining background characteristics to a person
based off their appearance. Understanding the dynamic around how clothing acts as a
visual cue to relay information from one person to another is important as it has been
found to be a main factor in first impressions. From first impressions and perceptions,
we interpret status, authority, and attitudes from a person based off appearance. This
does not just apply to uniform, but is heightened with regards to police uniform as it has
been found that police uniform not only acts as a visual cue for impression, but the
uniform can elicit positive behaviors when in proximity (Johnson, 2005). However,
‘police uniform’, as a term, lacks any universal definition and, therefore, can present as
a contested topic. Given that a police uniform can be a contested topic, the very use of
the terminology can mean something different in different settings. Within the setting of
police gang unit uniforms, uniforms are an evolving attire worn by officers who deal with
gang members. Just as those police gang unit officers’ unit titles may differ, their
uniform styles may differ. How those uniforms come to be defined, may also differ.
However, the lack of universal definition around uniforms does not affect how the study
unpacks its findings with regards to police gang unit uniforms.

21

With this in mind, the author found six themes which were drawn from the findings of
each research sub-question:
1. “Are the gang crime unit officers in uniform, plain clothes, or hybrid?” This sub-

question’s findings suggest; Police gang unit officers are most likely to operationalize in

a uniform. Meaning that police gang units deploy to the streets in a gang unit specific
police uniform more than they deploy in plain clothes or hybrid capacities
2. “What color is the officer’s uniform?” This sub-question’s findings suggest; Police

gang unit officers who deploy in uniform are most likely to deploy in a black uniform. In
other words, gang unit officers are three times more likely to visually appear to
operationalize in a black uniform than a non-black uniform.
3. “Does the uniform specifically say gang unit?” This sub-question’s findings suggest;

Police gang unit uniforms that identify as being a specialized unit that deals with gangs
are most likely to represent this title visually with the unit identification baring the words
Gang Unit. In other words, police gang unit officer uniforms are more likely to identify

specifically as being a gang unit than by identifying by any other synonym of gang unit.
4. “What words are used to describe the unit?” The sub-question’s findings suggest;

Police gang unit uniforms who do not identify as being a gang unit specifically, are most
likely to identify as being a Gang Task Force. Meaning that aside from gang unit, gang
task force is the most used synonym for a police unit that specializes on gangs.
5. “Is the officers vest internal or external?” The sub-question’s findings suggest; Police

gang unit officers are more likely to operationalize with an external vest than an internal
vest. Therefore, gang unit police officers are most likely to operationalize with visual
body armor (external), as opposed to having their vests under a uniform (internal).

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6. “What color is the officers vest?” The sub-question’s findings suggest; Police gang

unit officers with visual vests, are most likely to operationalize with a black vest. In other
words, gang unit police are 9 times more likely to use a black vest than any other color
vest.

Discussion
After having a general understanding of the themes derived from each specific research
sub-question, it is now possible to see how these themes interact together. The
following section links the above themes back to the primary research question.
As the primary research question of this study states its curiosity around the
analysis of the daily duty attire for police gang unit officers in Canada and the United
States with the aim to determine if there is a "visual standard" around their operational
appearance; being uniforms, plainclothes, or hybrid. The research sub-questions
findings combine to depict a response to the primary research question. The
combination of these findings suggests that; by combining all of the research subquestions findings police gang unit officers’ uniforms are most likely to appear as: a unit
specific police uniform, black in color, visually identify as a gang unit, and be wearing an
external bullet proof vest that is black in color 6.

Now if police gang crime unit officer uniforms are most likely to be an actual
uniform that is specific to the unit, be black in color, visually identify as being a gang unit
(most often by a patch or crest), and operationalize with an external vest that is also

Note: reference to uniform in this context is limited to upper body attire only, given the
dynamics of police work and sample availability for analysis. However, most often those
with a black uniform were accompanied with black pants.
6

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black in color; what might be the reasons that these variables are suggested in the
research findings to be best practice? Furthermore, how do these findings connect to
previous studies.

Connecting themes with previous research around color
With connection to the previous literature, studies around uniform color has been
suggested to change both officer perception and officer’s actions. This is important
because it is not just the person encountering a police officer whose behavior towards
that officer may change based off the color of the uniform the police officers are wearing;
but the very police officers can also internalize aspects of universal-sociological
responses to color that humans encounter (Johnsons, 2005).
Basic examples of universal color meanings and associations would be that white
is perceived to have these qualities: positive, innocence, purity, cleanliness, and faith.
Therefore, it is common for brides on their wedding days to wear white gowns. While the
universal color meanings behind the color black are perceived to have these qualities:
power, elegance, formality, authority, and death. Therefore, the color black seems to be
associated with funerals. While red is perceived to have the qualities of: blood, energy,
danger, power, passion, desire, and love 7. Therefore, red is associated with warning
signs, like street lights, break lights, stop signs, and alternatively hearts and other
symbols of love. Lastly blue is perceived to have the qualities of: loyalty, trust, wisdom,
confidence, and truth. Therefore, first responders or healthcare workers tend to wear

Examples of color meanings may differ based on cultural beliefs and values. However, the
examples listed are reasonable with regards to culture given the scope of this research, as the
research reflects Canada and the United States.
7

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blues (Sue & Sue, 1990).
Perhaps it could be inferred that police officers who operate on gang units with
the specific mandates to respond to and suppress gang related offences find it useful to
operationalize in a black uniform as a means elicit compliance by presenting in a more
authoritative and aggressive color towards the specific clients they are tasked with
serving. Clients that are more likely to engage in violent crimes than non-gang affiliated
clients.
Alternatively, could it be possible that gang unit officers wear black to simply
separate themselves from regular patrol officers? Given that a common color for patrol
constables is dark navy, perhaps there is only so many colors that present as viable
options for the job.

Connecting themes with previous research around evolution of uniform and targeted
clients
With connection to previous literature, studies around the evolution of police
uniform suggest that uniform has evolved around officer functionality. A functionality
linked closely to the evolution of technologies police use. Technological advancements
have lead to evolution in police responding and communications. Even today the use of
body cameras has added to such evolutions. Officers are not simply carrying revolvers,
batons, handcuffs, and flashlights anymore. Now officers may have all that plus more,
such as tasers, pepper spray, extra magazines, and so on. In some instances,
specialized units that operationalize with more tactical abilities have advanced weapons
training for assault riffles and are required to carry those extra assault riffle magazines
as part of their uniforms. Given only so much equipment can fit around a police officers’
duty belt, the use of an external vest contributes to officer functionality to carry all that is

25

required by the units’ mandate to uphold public safety.
A potential critique to the use of these larger weapons on police units is raising
the question around whether these units need to have larger weapons like assault rifles.
As a response to this critique I draw on some recent examples in Canada where citizens
have used hunting rifles that are capable at firing a greater distance than a standard
sidearm, leaving the responding officers at a disadvantage. Now although this example
did not specifically involve someone from a gang, given that gang members and those
who associate with gang members are more likely to engage in violent crimes having
the officers who respond to these people should be able to have the required tools to
uphold public safety against those who bring it into dispute. Part of having the proper
tools may include the use of wearing an external vest that can carry the required tools
such officers need to uphold their mandates.
Now given that gang unit officers follow a specific mandate that is focused on
gangs the use of identifying specifically as such seems reasonable. In both Canada and
the United States gang members may use colors, names, labels, graffiti, and specific
clothing to identify themselves, mark territory, induce fear, extort the community, and
maintain power (Sappenfield, 2001; Tyson, 1996). Gangs use reputation for violence to
support their criminal organizations and maintain control through extortion such as the
scenario depicted above. In this situation gang members show up and intimidate
civilians, which is when gang unit officers, by mandate, would respond
- to intimidate the intimidators. In such situations, the black police uniform, external vest,
and specific unit labelling of gang unit all serve as positive tools for these gang unit
officers to respond to such illegal gang activities. In a sense the police gang unit officers’
uniforms are not just indirectly stating “we are here to target gang activity” with their

26

gang unit crest or logo; but visually displaying as being a tactically enhanced police unit
that has the tools and resources required to show up and act against the elevated
violent tactics gangs use, such as the use of intimidation to uphold public safety.

Connecting themes with previous literature around militarization of the police
With connection to previous literature, studies around the militarization of the
police seem to be an ongoing debate and have connections rooted in political
legislations and policy. Given that political legislation and policies can influence how
public service agencies like police forces, the findings of this study support the previous
themes regarding the correlation between more tactical (militarized) police units and
policy; because if the severity of the threats and risk to public safety with regards to the
specific threats from gangs was not as prominent the very 64 gang unit specific samples
collected in this study – would not exist. Furthermore, these units are not cheap to
operate. The enhanced abilities afforded to these gang units comes at a price. A price
that simply could not be justified for no reason. Meaning that if funding becomes
approved for a specialized unit like a police gang unit, there must be a demand, be it
public or private, for resolve around the various issues both criminal and non-criminal
that stem from gang activities in the community. The dynamic relationship between
police uniform and the militarization of the police as it relates to politics may simply be
explained by use of the following illustration: “What came first? The gang units in

uniforms and therefore the legislation that approved the funding for them or the gang
issues in the community?”
Generally, legislation is proposed in response to something, in other words
political bodies tend to play catch-up to issues, as opposed to being proactive.
Therefore, if it’s more likely that police gang units are being put together in response to

27

something, perhaps that something they are responding to is demanding a more
militarized response to maintain public safety and security. It is not as though the police
gang unit officers are geared up for no reason to induce fear and police the state or
community. To emphasis this further, aside from the unit title of “gang unit” this study
found that the next most common synonym that was used was “gang task force.” The
title of gang task force was used as their uniform identification because the specific
organization and operationalization of the unit was that of a joined task force. A joined
task force being an amalgamation of police resources to form said gang task force.
Although more common in the United States, these (joined) gang task forces are
combining resources and information to tackle the issues gangs present to their
communities. Issues to large and to violent with no centralized jurisdiction. To respond
to such illegal activities these often-smaller police forces who share jurisdiction within a
state combine to make the joined task forces. Thus, the demand for response comes
before the deployment of more tactical units. Leaving the operationalization of police
units deploying to police the state – not upholding powers of a policed state.

Connecting themes with previous literature on social construction theory
With connection to previous literature around social construction, there is a clear
connection between how we identify a police officer based off visual cues and artifacts.
Those being a police officer’s uniform, badge, vehicle, lights and sirens to name a few
(Boghossian, 2001). These are all devices of social construction and the corresponding
responses to them are learned behaviors from how we, as societies internalize these
things. Although, the findings in this study do not engage with the deeper explanations
behind these visual cues or artifacts, the study does find what appears to be a visual
standard around police gang unit uniforms. One aspect that has not been mentioned yet

28

is the officers’ perception of themselves with regards to being part of a gang unit that
wears the uniform and faces the difficult clientele who are more prone to violent
behaviors, those being gang members. Therefore, from a socially constructed
perspective, police who work on gang units may internalize an enhanced capacity for
policing based off their tactically enhanced uniforms and specific gang unit title.

Limitations
Although this project was successful in answering its primary research question,
the projects findings are not without their limitations. One key limitation to this study was
its use of content analysis of digital media to gain its samples of police gang unit
uniforms. White digital media presents few ethical and access issues, sample
availability can be significantly affected and can lead to both over-inclusive or underinclusive sampling based off what is available from online sources (Riff et al., 2014).
This means that the replication of the study may differ as online availability of data
samples may potentially shift.
Another limitation to this study originates from its strict quantitative design;
although it yields numbers that where generated into statistics, how these numbers
reflect the deeper or more complex meanings behind the research is left unexplored.
Another limitation to using content analysis is that the samples lack generalizability

(Holsti, 1969). Even though there are 64 samples in this study, there were countless
more police gang crime units that were identified in the targeted sampling process but
had be excluded as they either did not yield a visual image of the unit or the image
lacked the sample criteria as laid out by the researcher.

29

Recommendations
The research project set out to determine if there was a visual standard to police
gang crime unit uniforms. This primary question was of interest because the researcher
has a curiosity on how the presence of a police gang crime unit uniform elicits
behavioral response from anyone that encounters said officers. How does the average
patrol in that restaurant seeing these police gang unit officers feel and or respond to
seeing these officers in that setting? The answer to this question is still not known.
However, further research could ask this question based off the findings of this study
because they would know how those gang unit officers are most likely to visually appear
as. This standard, most often, includes a black uniform, with an external vest that is also
black, presenting with the unit identification of a “gang unit.” For these reasons, I
recommend the findings of this study are taken further to qualitatively analyze the
relationship between citizens’ impression and police gang unit uniforms.
Another recommendation to be made based off this study is the development of
an awareness project aimed at increasing the publics understandings of police functions
and authority. Such a project could be developed with the goal of increasing the
likelihood that young kids and youth have positive understandings around police work in
hopes of strengthening the social cohesion between officers and the community. Use of
social construction theories primary and secondary socialization periods that lead to
projection of self and identity formation may be a useful framework for developing an
awareness program. Given that the program would be aimed at children and youth,
previous research states that the older youth get the harder it is to re-socialize them
(Berger, et al, 2002). With regards to police officers’ uniforms and citizen impression,
best application of an awareness project could be curriculum interjection among children

30

6 to 12 as part of a social studies type course. This would potentially benefit how these
kids internalize police powers, uniforms, and authority in a positive way that may
increase positive social cohesion between police and the public. Rather than leaving
socialization of the police to be delivered through mass media outlets – often at times of
dispute or crisis.

Conclusion
This study was exploratory and descriptive in nature and aimed to determine if
there were visual standards around the operational appearance of police gang crime
unit officers in Canada and the United States. The author used purposive targeted
sampling of digital media to collect data samples of images that contain deployed gang
unit police officers in their gang unit uniforms. The data was analyzed through social
construction theory because visual artifacts, such as a police uniform or badge, are
socially constructed objects of the external world society subjectively internalizes
(Boghossian, 2001). This process of labelling one’s uniform as a police officer can differ
from person to person, just as the meaning of the term gang can differ from person to
person. Given there is no universal definition for gang, the term may mean different
things to different people; therefore, a police officer’s uniform with the specific
identification of gang unit may be internalized differently from person to person
(McConnell, 2015). Social construction theory is a useful framework for understanding
how these processes can potentially affect citizen’s impression formation towards police
officers’ uniforms from gang units. After correlating social construction theory, the study
looked at how both the evolution of police uniforms and the militarization of the police
are connected to the findings of this study. Data collection and analysis suggested that

31

there is, in fact, a perceived standard of operational visual appearance regarding gang
crime unit police officers’ uniforms. That standard being: police gang unit officers’
uniforms are most likely to be a unit specific police uniform, black in color, visually
identify as a gang unit specifically, and contain an external bullet proof vest that is also
black in color.
These findings are important because there a significant research gap in the
literature around police uniforms in general, and even more so with respect to
specialized police units. This is crucial because citizen impression and communitysocial cohesion between police agencies and the public is a vital pillar in upholding the
law and maintaining public safety. This study’s findings are also important because
there is a lack of legislation that outlines the various powers of uniformed police
personnel. The findings in this study help build a base for future research on gang crime
unit police officers. Given that there is a lack of literature around current police uniforms,
I argue that it is extremely important that research be conducted on the subject as
technology and police uniforms will continue to evolve at a rapid rate.

32

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APPENDIX A – RESEARCH SAMPLE
CANADA
ALBERTA (AB)

1) Calgary Police Service: Gang Suppression Team (GST)
2) Edmonton Police Service Gang Unit
BRITISH COLUMBIA (BC)

4) Surrey RCMP Gang Unit
3) Vancouver Police Department: Gang Crime Unit (GCU)
MANITOBA (MB)

5) Winnipeg Police Service: Street Crime Unit (SCU)
ONTARIO (ON)

6) Ottawa Police Service: Guns and Gangs
7) Ottawa Police Service DART
QUEBEC (QC)

8) Montreal Police Service
SASKATCHEWAN (SK)

9) Saskatoon Police Gang Unit
INTEGRATED TASK FORCES (Throughout Canada)

10) Police Gang Enforcement CFSEU-BC
11) RCMP: Uniformed Gang Task Force (2010)

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
ALABAMA (AL)

12) Lamar County Sheriff Department – west Alabama Narcotics Task Force

36

ARIZONA (AZ)

13) Phoenix Police Gang Unit
14) Tucson Police Department Gang Tactical Unit
CALIFORNIA (CA)

15) Coachella Valley Police Department Gang Unit
16) Fresno Police Department Anti-Gang Unit
17) La Habra Police Department Gang Unit
18) Los Angele’s Counter Surveillance and Gang Unit
19) Placentia Police Department Gang and Homicide Investigation Team
20) San Diego County Sheriff's - the North County Gang Taskforce
21) San Diego Police Department – Gang Suppression Unit
22) Santa Ana Police Department Gang Detail
23) Salinas Police Department Violence Suppression Unit
24) Santa Rosa Police Gang Unit
25) South Bay Police Department Joined Gang Task Force
26) South Los Angele’s Police Department Gang Unit
COLORADO (CO)

27) Aurora Police Department Gang Unit
CONNECTICUT (CT)

28) New Haven Police: Vice / Narcotics Unit that includes the Tactical Narcotic Unit and
the Street Interdiction Unit
DELAWARE (DE)

29) Delaware State Police Drug Unit / Intelligence Unit
FLORIDA (FL)

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30) Boward County Sheriff Department – Gang Task Force
31) Miami Florida – Multi Agency Gang Task Force
GEORGIA (GA)

32) Floyd County Police Department: Gang Unit
HAWAII (HI)

33) U.S. Marshals Task Force, Honolulu Police Department (HPD), Maui Police
Department (MPD), Hawaii Police Department (HCPD), and the Bureau of Alcohol,
Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives (ATF)
IDAHO (ID)

34) Boise Police Gang Unit
ILLINOIS (IL)

35) Willis County Police: Gang Enforcement Unit
INDIANA (IN)

36) Indianapolis Metropolitan Police Department - Street Operations Group (SOG)
KANSAS (KS)

37) Wichita Police Department Gang Unit
KENTUCKY (KY)

38) Louisville Metro Police Departments: Violent Incident Prevention, Enforcement and
Response Unit (VIPER)
LOUISIANA (LA)

39) St. Landry Parish sheriff department
MARYLAND (MD)

40) Baltimore Police Department
MASSACHUSETTS (MA)

38

41) Boston Police Department Gang Unit - Youth Violence Strike Force (YVSF)
MICHIGAN (MI)

42) Detroit Police Department: Gang Squad
MINNESOTA (MN)

43) Minneapolis police Gang Unit
44) St. Paul Police Gang Unit
NEBRASKA (NE)

45) Omaha Police Gang Unit
NEVADA (NV)

46) Las Vegas Metro Police Department – Gang Unit
47) Reno Police Department Gang Unit
NEW MEXICO (NM)

48) Albuquerque Police Gang Unit
NEW YORK (NY)

49) Brooklyn Police Department Gang Task Force
50) New York Police Departments Bronx Violent Fugitive Squad
NORTH DAKOTA (ND)

51) Clay County Anti-Gang unit
OHIO (OH)

52) Toledo Police Gang Task Force
OKLAHOMA (OK)

53) Tulsa Police Department Gang Unit
OREGON (OR)

54) Portland Police Bureau’s Gun Task Force and Gang Enforcement Team

39

TENNESSEE (TN)

55) Chattanooga Police Department Street Crimes Response Team
56) Jackson Police Gang Unit
TEXAS (TX)

57) Dallas Police Department Gang Unit
UTAH (UT)

58) Utah Police Joined Gang Task Force – Salt Lake City
WASHINGTON (WA)

59) Seattle Police Gang Unit
60) Seattle Purge: Port Unified Resources in Gang Enforcement
WISCONSIN (WI)

61) Green Bay Police Department Gang Task Force
AMERICAN FEDERAL AGENCY’S AND JOINT TASK FORCES

62) U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement's (ICE) Homeland Security
Investigations (HSI) – Southern California
63) U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement's (ICE) Homeland Security
Investigations (HSI) – In California
64) U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement's (ICE) Homeland Security
Investigations (HSI) – In Dallas