Kwantlen Psychology Student Journal
Issue 2, July 2020
Kwantlen Polytechnic University

Studying to Fail: The Relationship Between Stress and Memory and the
Implications for Students
Emma Garland1
Abstract
This paper reviews current literature on the topics of stress and memory, and examines their
relationship while emphasizing potential implications for students. The discussion begins with
the underlying processes of the stress response and the impact that has on memory, with a focus
on stress-induced retrieval impairment. Retrieval-induced forgetting is discussed with
consideration of findings by Koessler et al. (2009) that stress has an inhibitory effect on the
process. Variables that influence susceptibility to memory impairment, namely low
extraversion (Law et al., 2012) and low arousal level of material (Buchanan et al., 2006;
Goldfarb et al., 2019), are considered alongside suggestions for better study practices. Research
is explored that demonstrates the effectiveness of retrieval practice as a defence against stressinduced retrieval impairment, and students are advised of the benefits that utilizing this practice
may bring (Smith et al., 2018; Smith et al., 2016).
Keywords: acute stress, memory, retrieval-induced forgetting, retrieval practice,
retrieval-impairment

1

Emma.Garland@email.kpu.ca; Written for Psychology of Memory (PSYC 3215). Special thanks to Dr. Daniel
Bernstein for recommending the submission and for providing a semester of inspiring lectures that sparked a
curiosity about the influence of memory on everyday life.
Emma graduated in Spring 2020 with a BA in Psychology (with distinction). She will be attending the University of
British Columbia in Fall 2020 to complete a B.Ed. and apply for a teaching diploma. In the long term, Emma hopes
to complete a Masters in Developmental Psychology and pursue research in areas of education and learning.

2

GARLAND, E.
Studying to Fail: The Relationship Between Stress and Memory and the
Implications for Students
Imagine the following scenario: A student spends hours studying for an upcoming
midterm, reading their notes to exhaustion. Once in the examination room, they find themselves
unable to recall the information they so effortfully studied prior. This disappointing failure in
retrieval, colloquially referred to as blanking, is all too common for students. How does a
memory lapse like this occur? In this paper, a selection of current literature focusing on the
interaction of acute stress and memory is reviewed, with the purpose of offering insights into
the implications for students. Given the role of memory in education, dispersal of this
knowledge could improve student study habits and help to explain poor performance under
stressful conditions such as examinations. The paper will begin by outlining the underlying
processes of the stress response and its relationship with memory, followed by an exploration
of the concept of retrieval-induced forgetting, as well as factors that influence stress-induced
retrieval impairment. Finally, the paper will conclude with a discussion of what the research
suggests for student study practices. While stress is often an inescapable part of schooling,
proper knowledge and tools may lessen or even eliminate the unfortunate effects it has on some
students.
The Stress Response and Memory
Before examining the impact of the stress response on memory, one must first
understand how memories are formed under normal conditions. The creation of a memory
begins with encoding, in which perceived information is sent to the hippocampus to be
transformed into a memory representation. Once transferred into long-term memory storage,
that representation can be accessed and retrieved later on. Retrieval involves the recollection of
contextual associations, accompanied by the reestablishment of cortical activity that occurred
in the original experience (Gagnon et al., 2019). When a stressor is introduced, the processes of
memory are altered in complex and varying ways.
Stress initiates the release of catecholamines (norepinephrine and epinephrine) and
glucocorticoids (cortisol; Buchanan et al., 2006; Gagnon et al., 2019; Joëls et al., 2006; Koessler
et al., 2009; Schwabe & Wolf, 2014; Smith et al., 2018). Schwabe and Wolf (2014) describe the
stress response in three phases. The first phase is an immediate release of noradrenaline,
followed several minutes later by the second phase involving a fast-acting cortisol release. The

STUDYING TO FAIL
third and final phase begins 1 to 7 hours after the initial stressor, with a slower-acting cortisol
reaction. This has a direct impact on memory, owing to the vast number of glucocorticoid
receptors in the hippocampus (Smith et al., 2018). Additionally, the highly stress-sensitive
amygdala is known to alter the functioning of the hippocampus in the presence of a stressor
(Goldfarb et al., 2019; Smith et al., 2018). The different actions of these neurochemicals lead
to diverging effects on the encoding and retrieval processes of memory. Depending on the
timing of the stressor, one may experience enhancement of encoding, while the process of
retrieval may be impaired (Buchanan et al., 2006; Goldfarb et al., 2019; Smith et al., 2018).
It may seem counterintuitive that experiencing acute stress can both help and hinder
memory, but with deeper analysis of the stages a logic emerges. Stress experienced at the
encoding phase makes the context more salient, thereby inducing a more aware and focused
state in which to create better associations (Gagnon et al., 2019; Goldfarb et al., 2019; Joëls et
al., 2006; Schwabe & Wolf, 2014). This leads to improved retrieval in the absence of stress. If,
instead, stress is experienced in the retrieval phase, actions such as recognition and recall are
impaired (Buchanan et al., 2006; Schwabe & Wolf, 2014). Neurologically, this stress-induced
retrieval impairment has been attributed to the third phase of the stress response outlined above
by Schwabe and Wolfe (2014). The slower-acting cortisol release triggers a change from the
normal hippocampus-led system of remembering to an instinctual fight-or-flight system that
does not allow for details to be retrieved (Schwabe & Wolf, 2014).
Goldfarb and colleagues (2019) examined these time-dependent effects of stress on
memory and uncovered differing results when stress was administered pre-encoding, postencoding, or pre-retrieval. Stress presented prior to encoding enhanced memory for words that
participants considered highly arousing, but only for associative memory. When stress was
presented after encoding, researchers found that memory for highly arousing words was
enhanced but the effect was limited to memory for parts of an event (item memory). These
findings, while relevant to some, only apply to students who felt stress within the learning
process. A more common setting for students to feel stress is an examination or test when
retrieving previously learned knowledge. The final testing manipulation provides telling
information for this setting, in that the presentation of stress before retrieval impaired all types
of memory, regardless of the arousal rating of the words. These results show a clear negative
effect of stress on retrieval of information.

3

4

GARLAND, E.
Stress-induced retrieval impairment has indisputable implications for students as their
performance is often quantified in terms of scores on examinations that are often, if not always,
accompanied by some degree of stress (Gagnon et al., 2019; Joëls et al., 2006; Karpicke &
Roediger, 2008; Koessler et al., 2009; Smith et al., 2018; Smith et al., 2016). It can be inferred
that experiencing stress during an exam may lead to poorer performance in spite of efforts to
prepare. Given that student academic performance is largely measured by successful retrieval
and less on encoding processes, this will be the focus of the remaining sections.
Retrieval-Induced Forgetting
A phenomenon stemming from retrieval impairment with specific consequences for
students is the concept of retrieval-induced forgetting (RIF). This occurs when retrieval of a
memory is inhibited or suppressed by the previous retrieval of a similar memory (Koessler et
al., 2009; Law et al., 2012). Given that academic tests are typically comprised of units within a
common theme, this effect can be detrimental for students. Research by Law and colleagues
(2012) as well as Koessler and colleagues (2009) demonstrates the procedure for studying RIF.
Participants first learn item-pairs, such as “fruit-strawberry,” and are later tested by being given
the first word of the pair and being asked to recall the second word. The learning phase is further
manipulated to create two categories: Rp+ item-pairs, which are learned and later studied
through retrieval practice (a technique that will be explained in a later section), and Rp- itempairs, which are learned but not studied. During the recall phase that follows, a third control
category (Npr item-pairs) is introduced as the participants are asked to recall words from pairs
that they were never exposed to. The typical performance on this test is Rp+ items being readily
recalled, while Npr and Rp- items are consequently inaccessible. RIF is shown in that the
retrieval practice for Rp+ items inhibits the ability to recall Rp- items, with Rp- items often
being recalled even worse than Npr items. In summary, word-pairs that are learned but not
studied are recalled worse than word-pairs never learned at all; this points directly to the
importance of studying material in order to have future access to the memory.
Results found by Koessler and colleagues (2009) in their exploration of RIF and stress
have particular relevance to students. The authors found that RIF was diminished on free-recall
tests under stressful conditions, suggesting an inhibiting effect of stress. The researchers suggest
that this reduction of RIF under stress may pose a benefit to students in testing situations by
providing access to more information held in memory (Koessler et al., 2009). I argue instead

STUDYING TO FAIL
that without RIF silencing extraneous noise, students may find themselves overwhelmed with
a plethora of information and unable to locate the correct memory. While it may appear
beneficial to have access to many related memory traces at once during retrieval, it could result
in much more difficulty locating the specific trace one needs.
The act of forgetting is often looked upon negatively, which may lead people to view
RIF as a cognitive nuisance. RIF, however, is a necessary and helpful aspect of memory
(Koessler et al., 2009; Law et al., 2012). The discovery that stress inhibits RIF, whether to a
student’s benefit or not, highlights the severity of the impact of stress on processes of memory.
Factors that Mediate Stress-Induced Retrieval-Impairment
It is clear that academic performance can be directly impacted by the effects of stress
on memory, but this unfortunate consequence does not imply students are destined to forget
learned material once they encounter a stressor. In fact, studies have shown that certain
personality traits as well as characteristics of the material being learned may alter the experience
of stress-induced retrieval impairment.
Characteristics of the Learner
In a study by Law and colleagues (2012) a positive correlation was discovered between
high extraversion scores and performance on a RIF task. Participants reporting state anxiety in
combination with low extraversion experience a more clouded retrieval process and appear not
to benefit from RIF. It is noted that extraversion and state anxiety have an inverse relationship,
suggesting the possibility that extraverted individuals experience a generally lower stress level
than introverted individuals. As such, students that are naturally extraverted may enjoy a
retrieval advantage over their introverted counterparts. Further study investigating the
relationship between personality and stress-induced retrieval impairment is needed, but this
research offers a preliminary glimpse into the varied experiences that individuals may have
under stress according to their personality traits.
Characteristics of the Information to be Remembered
Have you have ever wondered why it is far easier to recall the details of a car crash or
earthquake that occurred many years ago than it is to remember what you had for lunch a few
days ago? You may find your answer in research that explores memory for information with
differing levels of arousal. It is generally found that higher arousal of information leads to better
memory representations and easier retrieval (Buchanan et al., 2006; Goldfarb et al., 2019).

5

6

GARLAND, E.
In a study examining how stress influences memory, Goldfarb and colleagues (2019)
manipulated both the timing of the stressor as well as the arousal level of the items. Their results
demonstrate that retrieval of high-arousal information is better when stress is induced before
encoding compared to when stress is absent. This may be the result of a match between arousal
levels at encoding and similar cortisol representations later on during retrieval (Goldfarb et al.,
2019), commonly referred to as encoding specificity (Tulving & Thomson, 1973). Other
researchers have found similar results, with highly arousing words being less susceptible to
stress-induced retrieval impairment (Buchanan et al., 2006). Given that some courses’ subject
matter is unexciting for students, this may lend an explanation for poor performance on
examinations despite seemingly adequate time being allotted to study. That being said, it is
unreasonable to expect all material to be arousing, and it would be more valuable to alter study
habits rather than use the mundanity of studies as an excuse.
Implications for Students
Stress is an inevitable part of educational endeavors for most university students. In the
above-mentioned research, many note the implications of stress in this particular setting
(Gagnon et al., 2019; Karpicke & Roediger, 2008; Smith et al., 2018; Smith et al., 2016). In
this final section, strategies will be presented that students can employ in order to lessen the
impairment that stress may have on their academic success.
Retrieval Practice
The induction of stress renders many traditional ways of studying surprisingly
inadequate. For example, students who assume that reading material in repetition is sufficient
preparation for an exam may find themselves disappointed in their ability to retrieve the desired
information. The remedy to improper study habits may lie in what researchers call retrieval
practice (RP) as spoken of earlier, where engaging in self-testing techniques promotes more
durable memories (Karpicke & Roediger, 2008; Smith et al., 2018; Smith et al., 2016). The
difference in resultant performance from simply re-reading compared to RP lies in the strength
of the memory that is created: Re-reading creates weak memories, whereas RP creates strong
memories (Smith et al., 2018; Smith et al., 2016). Hence, studying using re-reading techniques
may be satisfactory under normal conditions, but students utilizing this technique will find
retrieval difficult with the induction of stress.

STUDYING TO FAIL
Students may now be wondering how many instances of retrieval will create a strong
enough memory to withstand a stressful examination. Smith and colleagues (2018) explored
exactly this question in their research on how RP protects memories under situations of acute
stress. The authors found that a single correct retrieval attempt in the study session was enough
for successful retrieval in the final recall test if the test was within 24 hours of studying. With
a delay of a week between studying and testing, however, students needed at least three retrieval
attempts during their study phase in order to overcome stress in the final testing phase. The
authors point out that this may be why cramming for a test appears to work in the short-term
but will not lead to any lasting knowledge (Smith et al., 2018).
Karpicke and Roediger (2008) investigated the effect of RP on memory performance
and found similar support for the importance of self-testing in academic success. The authors
recreated the typical technique of flashcard use, in which a concept is studied until one retrieval
attempt is successfully executed and then is immediately eliminated from the study material.
Results revealed that groups instructed to drop material after a single successful retrieval
recalled a maximum of 36% when tested a week after learning, while groups that were not
instructed to drop material after a single successful retrieval and instead engaged in multiple
retrievals successfully recalled 80% of the learned material (Karpicke & Roediger, 2008).
The above results demonstrate a clear benefit of RP for memory, especially in stressful
conditions, but how exactly this process works is still unknown. Smith and colleagues (2016)
suggest that the benefit of RP may be that it promotes the establishment of numerous pathways
through which to access the memory. Recall that with the induction of stress, cortisol binds to
glucocorticoid receptors in the hippocampus and causes a blockage of access to the memory.
The authors suggest that by engaging in RP, though, one can create alternate routes to bypass
the blockages and reach the desired memory.
The strength of memories created by RP may also be explained through the lens of a
levels of processing approach. In this theory, Craik and Lockhart (1972) assert that deeper
consideration of the information will lead to a stronger memory, as it reaches a deeper level of
processing. The act of retrieving a memory trace, as in RP, requires one to respond to a test of
knowledge in a meaningful way, rather than simply re-reading in a rote memory fashion. Craik
and Lockhart (1972) note that rehearsal alone is not enough to create lasting memories and that,
without deeper processing, one is only delaying the forgetting of a memory. This explains why

7

8

GARLAND, E.
re-reading is insufficient for later memory tests, as it accesses a much shallower level of
processing and thus creates a weaker memory representation.
Conclusions
The unfortunate reality is that students will experience stress throughout their academic
career, especially in post-secondary studies. Even students who recall memories with high
levels of confidence are not immune to stress-induced retrieval impairment (Gagnon et al.,
2019). An especially frustrating experience for students is a poor grade on an exam when a
substantial amount of time was spent studying. While the unavoidable inhibiting effects of
stress on retrieval likely contribute to this outcome, this is not the end of the story for students.
Given what is known about stress and how it affects memory, there are strategies one can
employ to provide a buffer against these adverse consequences.
As reported above, researchers have identified the ways in which stress interrupts
memory processes, with stress at encoding leading to enhancement of memory formation and
stress at retrieval causing a reduction of memory accessibility. With a focus on the latter: stressinduced retrieval impairment, retrieval-induced forgetting (RIF) was examined and shown to
have substantial impacts on students (Law et al., 2012). A particularly interesting finding is that
stress reduces the effects of RIF, which may lead students to have access to too many memories
that may impede their ability to focus on relevant information (Koessler et al., 2009).
More extraverted students may reap the benefits of experiencing less anxiety and thus
be less affected by stress-induced retrieval impairments (Law et al., 2012). Likewise,
information that is rated as highly arousing is often retrieved with more ease than dull
information (Buchanan et al., 2006; Goldfarb et al., 2019). Regrettably, personality traits and
the arousal level of material are rarely factors over which students have control. As such, the
best defense a student may have against the detrimental effects of stress on retrieval is through
the use of proper study habits that provide a buffer against these shortcomings.
Retrieval practice (RP) is recommended by researchers as a study habit that students
can adopt, should they want to improve their retrieval ability under stress (Karpicke et al., 2008;
Smith et al., 2018; Smith et al., 2016). This method of repetitive self-testing has been shown to
produce less retrieval errors, perhaps through the availability of multiple pathways to a single
memory trace (Smith et al., 2016) or by engaging in deeper analysis of information (Craik &
Lockhart, 1972).

STUDYING TO FAIL
The usefulness of RP in study practices is well documented, but what does RP look like
in a practical sense? If using flashcards to study, one should continue to attempt retrieval of
every card until, at the very least, three successful retrieval attempts are made. Additionally, a
student may convert their class notes into questions to create a practice test and similarly ensure
that at least three correct retrievals are made before moving on. It is possible that simply
engaging in these practices may reduce some stress felt during the exam and lessen the overall
impact on retrieval. One may also explore the concept of encoding specificity, as briefly
mentioned in a previous section. As introduced by Tulving and Thomson (1973), this concept
proposes that a memory is likely to be successfully retrieved in a context that is similar to that
of encoding. Therefore, one could introduce a mild stressor into the study session, such as a
time limit for completion of a self-made practice test, in order to mimic the stressful conditions
of the actual exam. The stress felt during the study session may match the stress felt during the
exam, thus providing a contextual cue to aid in retrieval. These are just a few examples of
practical implications of the findings and are by no means an exhaustive list. There is room for
creativity here, but the key component of study practices must be that a student is actively
retrieving the information from memory, rather than simply reading or repeating it. These
techniques have the potential to increase academic performance on tests and to help students
become better learners overall.
Limitations of Research and Suggestions for Future Study
In the literature reviewed, measurement of salivary cortisol was used consistently, but
subjective ratings were only used in research by Schwabe and Wolf (2014). This leaves a gap
in the research with regard to whether or not cortisol response levels indicate the same feeling
of stress in each individual. Indeed, it is possible that different cortical elevations have varying
subjective feelings, with some experiencing more anxiousness and negative affect, while others
may experience a healthy level of eustress. Additionally, there is a lack of consistency in stressinduction in participants. Some researchers utilized a social stressor in the form of the Trier
Social Stress Test (Koessler et al., 2009; Smith et al., 2018; Smith et al., 2016), while others
used a physiological stressor in the form of the cold-pressor test (Buchanan et al., 2006;
Goldfarb et al., 2019; Schwabe & Wolf, 2014). It is possible that these different forms of stress
induction yield different experiences of stress. Specifically, social stressors may be more
relevant when considering student stress, as physiological stress is less often experienced in the

9

10

GARLAND, E.

context of examinations. This being said, neither method of stress induction exactly mimics the
feeling of test anxiety. Future research may benefit from utilizing a salivary cortisol sample in
combination with a subjective measure of stress, while in a naturalistic examination setting. In
this way, an accurate indication of the stress students experience may be gathered, and
subsequent performance analyzed in order to identify reflections of stress levels in student
scores. The execution of this, however, may not be realistic, as the very act of having saliva
taken may induce stress beyond that experienced organically in an examination setting.
Throughout this paper stress has been considered an inescapable construct within
educational settings; however, this may not be a universal experience for students. In fact, some
students may not experience a level of stress that is intense enough to cause any impairments
to their performance, whereas other students may perform successfully even while in a stressed
state. Further exploration into the individual differences that protect against academic stressors
would benefit students greatly. In addition to improving study habits, a concept that may benefit
students, but was not covered in this paper, is stress management training; if test anxiety is
consistently having a negative effect on academic performance this is a technique students may
wish to explore. With proper knowledge of how to overcome the impact of stress on memory
retrieval, students will be better equipped to perform successfully and enjoy the process of
learning.

STUDYING TO FAIL

11
References

Buchanan, T. W., Tranel, D., & Adolphs, R. (2006). Impaired memory retrieval correlates with
individual differences in cortisol response but not autonomic response. Learning &
Memory, 13(3), 382–387. https://doi.org/10.1101/lm.206306
Craik, F., & Lockhart, S. R. (1972). Levels of processing: A framework for memory research.
Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behaviour, 11(6), 671–684.
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0022-5371(72)80001-X
Gagnon, S. A., Waskom, M. L., Brown, T. I., & Wagner, A. D. (2019). Stress impairs episodic
retrieval by disrupting hippocampal and cortical mechanisms of remembering.
Cerebral Cortex, 29(7), 2947–2964. https://doi.org/10.1093/cercor/bhy162
Goldfarb, E. V., Tompary, A., Davachi, L., & Phelps, E. A. (2019). Acute stress throughout the
memory cycle: Diverging effects on associative and item memory. Journal of
Experimental Psychology: General, 148(1), 13–29.
https://doi.org/10.1037/xge0000472
Joëls, M., Pu, Z., Wiegert, O., Oitzl, M. S., & Krugers, H. J. (2006). Learning under stress:
How does it work? Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 10(4), 152–158.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2006.02.002
Karpicke, J. D., & Roediger III, H. L. (2008). The critical importance of retrieval for learning.
Science, 319(5865), 966–968. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1152408
Koessler, S., Engler, H., Riether, C., & Kissler, J. (2009). No retrieval-induced forgetting
under stress. Psychological Science (0956-7976), 20(11), 1356–1363.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.2009.02450.x
Law, R., Groome, D., Thorn, L., Potts, R., & Buchanan, T. (2012). The relationship between
retrieval-induced forgetting, anxiety, and personality. Anxiety, Stress & Coping, 25(6),
711–718. https://doi.org/10.1080/10615806.2011.630070
Schwabe, L., & Wolf, O. T. (2014). Timing matters: Temporal dynamics of stress effects on
memory retrieval. Cognitive, Affective & Behavioral Neuroscience, 14(3), 1041–1048.
https://doi.org/10.3758/s13415-014-0256-0
Smith, A. M., Davis, F. C., & Thomas, A. K. (2018). Criterial learning is not enough:
Retrieval practice is necessary for improving post-stress memory accessibility.
Behavioral Neuroscience, 132(3), 161–170. https://doi.org/10.1037/bne0000240

12

GARLAND, E.

Smith, A. M., Floerke, V. A., & Thomas, A. K. (2016). Retrieval practice protects memory
against acute stress. Science, 354(6315), 1046–1048.
https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aah5067
Tulving, E., & Thomson, D. M. (1973) Encoding specificity and retrieval processes in
episodic memory. Psychological Review, 80(5), 352–373.
https://doi.org/10.1037/h0020071