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Fall 2015

Ethnic Representation in Canadian Primary
English Textbooks
Cherylynn Bassani
Kwantlen Polytechnic University

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Original Publication Citation
Bassani, C. Ethnic representation in Canadian primary English textbooks. Red Feather Journal,6(2), 53-74

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Ethnic Representation in Canadian Primary English Textbooks
By Cherylynn Bassani, Kwantlen Polytechnic University, British Columbia
Introduction
Research that examines ethnic representation in children’s literature is limited, and
that which exists almost exclusively examines American children’s literature in terms
of: white privilege (Gaines, 1990; Willis-Rivera & Meeker, 2002), accuracy of ethnic
portrayal (Cai, 1994; Epps, 1997; Nilsson, 2005) and tracing the multicultural
perspective in books (Gillespie et al., 1994; Vandergrift, 1993). While some
publications do discuss multicultural issues in Canadian children’s literature
(Bainbridge et al, 1999; Carpenter, 1996; 1992; 1975; Edwards & Saltman, 2010;
Saldanha, 2000) content analysis of these issues is limited (Pezold, 2000). In
addition, the Canadian literature focuses broadly on children’s literature, and does
not examine textbooks per se. Edwards & Saltman’s (2010) most recent publication,
for example, makes an invaluable contribution to the history of children’s literature
and childhood in Canada, though it does not speak to under- or misrepresentations in
Canadian textbooks. In recent years, there has been a slow growth of publications
concerning children’s literature, though research tends to focus on representation of
gender (Crisp & Hiller, 2011; McCabe et al., 2011) and disability (Beckett et al, 2010;
Golos & Annie, 2011) -not ethnicity or race. Only a handful of studies examine
ethnicity or race in children’s literature in the Canadian context.
The fundamental purpose of this paper is to provide an initial examination of
the representation of ethnic diversity in primary level (grades 1-3) English books that
the British Columbia (BC) Ministry of Education recommends. Ethnic representation
in Canadian elementary school readers or textbooks has not been examined in the
past and the scholarship that examines ethnic representation of Canadian children’s
book is exceedingly limited. As such, this paper makes a number of contributions to
the child studies, education, multicultural and race and ethnicity literatures both in
Canada and elsewhere. In writing this paper I not only hope to bring attention to the
incongruency between BC’s (and more generally Canada’s) ethnic diversity and what
is being showcased in primary-level English textbooks, but of equal importance my
aim is to encourage researchers to examine ethnic representations found in
textbooks, across subjects, both in Canada and elsewhere. While children’s voice and
agency have increasingly been embraced over the past two centuries in Western
cultures, children are still a marginalized group. If we want to develop a citizenry that
is open and accepting of cultural diversity we need to first recognize the ethnic and
racial messages that we are socializing our children with and then hopefully delve
into rectifying any inequalities. In multicultural countries such as Canada, that have a
large proportion of visible minorities it is rudimentary to examine how ethnicity is
being socialized in the schools. The examination of books that are used in the primary
system is one rudimentary way of investigating the messages that we are teaching our
children.

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Multiculturalism
In Canada the concept of multiculturalism is intertwined within our Constitution and
stretches to every mezzo and micro corner of society. Official multicultural ideology
encourages multiple ethnicities to exist and co-exist within Canadian society. While
the Constitution (1982) and Multiculturalism Act (1988) formally espouse what is
often phrased as ‘tolerance’ for cultures outside of the founding Charter groups, we
can see through cultural dialog –via cuisine, fashion, media, friendships and
marriage –that a growing majority of Canadians espouse much more than ‘tolerance’
of a multicultural state. In the 1980s, Canada experienced a multicultural movement.
Just as the (first and second wave) Feminist movements sought to bring about the
normalcy of women’s rights in society and the inclusion of females as equals, the
multicultural movement sought to infiltrate the normalcy of equality –irrespective of
one’s ethnicity; their culture or physical attributes.
In many ways, multiculturalism has become normalized in Canadian society.
Though, despite massive changes, we can also see how its infiltration has been
limited in a variety of mezzo realms –such as the education system. Multiculturalism
in Canada is a hugely debated topic –and there is no shared consensus of what
multiculturalism is, despite the paradox that it is national policy. While the
complexities and dialog surrounding multiculturalism surpass the abilities of this
article, it is nonetheless an imperative starting point when discussing ethnic diversity
in the education system.
Education & Textbooks
Apart from the family, the education system is the most important agent of
socialization for children. There is no argument that socialization begins at birth.
Research on young children and their transference between picture books and the
real world reveals that children even by the age of 18 months begin to contemplate
pictures (DeLoache et al, 1998) and it is suggested that the more real to life pictures
appear, the greater the understanding and the child’s transferability to the real world
(Preissler & Carey, 2004; Ganea et al, 2008). From a younger age than most of us
would imagine, children begin to learn social order. By the time children reach the
school system they have undergone initial socialization from their family and
community. Both the preschool and primary years (grades 1 through 3), and
consequentially school –though more specifically teachers and classes play a critical
role in child socialization. It is internationally agreed that this period sets the stage
for lifelong learning (UNESCO, 2008) and consequentially what children are taught
and the way that they themselves fit into their school experience and overall society
have immediate effects on their achievement levels, as well as their life long learning
and general well-being.
Any given elementary school houses hundreds if not thousands of books:
textbooks, supplementary readers, and library books. It has long been recognized that
books are second only to parents in teaching children about their ethnicity
(Bettlekheim, 1977). Textbooks are powerful media sources that are a part of
children’s formal socialization process, and as such they are core agents of schoolbased socialization.
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Books provide children with images of both the imagined and real worlds. As
cultural artefacts produced by the predominating culture, it is important for
educational stakeholders to be mindful of the ‘white gaze.’ This is particularly true in
countries such as Canada that espouse multiculturalism. As Willis-Rivera & Meeker
(2002) discuss the prevalence of the ‘white gaze’ in children’s literature continues.
Here they discuss the unconscious point of view of media and its projected (white)
audience (Mulvey, 1975) that has ‘white privilege’ (Gaine, 1990). As they maintain
white privilege is portrayed in children’s literature –through the assumed audience
being ‘white,’ having limited ethnic main characters and ethnic characters having
limited power.
While much of the research on ethnicity in children’s literature surrounds
character portrayal, character development and issues of power –at a more
foundational level who is depicted in children’s books is just as important as who is
not depicted in the books. In order to develop a strong sense of self, or social capital
(which equates with confidence and ultimately integration into wider society)
children need to see images with which they can identify. Feminist researchers have
argued for over four decades that children (both boys and girls) need to see more
females in children’s literature and in a variety of roles (Collins et al, 1984; Tuchman,
1979; Turner-Bowker, 1996; Weitzman et al, 1972; Wharton, 2005). The concern that
we once had over the ‘symbolic annihilation’ of females in children’s literature and its
association with discrimination -ultimately a lower value being placed on females in
society (Wharton, 2005) is no different from the symbolic annihilation of ethnic
minorities in Canadian children’s textbooks today.
Limited and inaccurate ethnic content in textbooks are apt to have detrimental
effects on child socialization: whether the child is from an ethnic minority or majority
group. May I remind the reader that multiculturalism is for the enrichment of all
people –not merely for individuals belonging to minority groups. As many scholars
maintain, books that cover issues of ethnic diversity help minority children’s point of
view to be validated, while children from the majority group have the opportunity to
be exposed to, learn about and appreciate different cultures (Bishop, 1987; Lamme et
al., 2004; Lu, 1998; Vandergrift, 1993). In the 1980s, Bishop made an important
point when she argued that children’s literature has the opportunity to show kids
“how we are connected to one another … (how we can better) understand, appreciate
and celebrate differences, (and…) can be used to develop an understanding of the
effects of social issues and forces on (their) lives.” (1987: 60). It is now four decades
later, and we are faced with the same conundrum. How is ethnic diversity portrayed
in children’s textbooks?
Data & Methods
The purpose of this research is to examine the ethnic and/ or racial composition of
main characters in Grades 1, 2 and 3 English textbooks and to compare these findings
to BC’s and Canada’s ethnic diversity. By doing this we can establish whether or not
ethnic diversity is accurately (proportionately) being portrayed in these primary
textbooks.
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Data & Procedure
The data used in this study was created via a latent content analysis that focused on
the ethnic and/ or racial background of characters in Grades 1, 2 and 3 English
textbooks that are mandated by the BC Ministry of Education (2015). A total of 214
stories were analyzed.
Every five years the BC Ministry of Education establishes a curriculum task
force comprised of members of the Education community (primarily teachers) that
choose mandated and supplementary texts (textbooks, readers, and so forth) to be
used in the BC school curriculum. For the purpose of this study I have focused solely
on primary-level English textbooks and have examined the Cornerstones (published
in 1999 by Gage Learning Corporation) and Collections (published by Prentice Hall
Ginn in 1998) series –for Grades 1, 2 and 3. These two series comprise the two core
English textbooks at the primary-level that teachers should choose from. These series
are used in the primary English curriculum in many Canadian provinces.
The primary years are particularly informative for children, as they have only
recently entered the school system. At the beginning of their formal education and
this socialization process children are particularly malleable. For this reason I focus
my evaluation on children’s primary school textbooks. English textbooks are the
focus of this study since English is the official provincial language –and
consequentially it is the language used to teach in most BC schools.
Latent content analysis was used to code the race/ ethnicity of the characters
(in addition to other variables such as sex, age, power and character development).
Racial/ ethnic categories were open-ended and were determined by a combination of
the character’s physical features (such as hair colour and style), dress and written
story cues.
Two researchers conducted content analysis on each of the 214 stories. As data
collection was carried out, researchers met to discuss the emerging racial/ ethnic
categories. When researchers disagreed in terms of the coding of particular
characters’ racial/ ethnic groups, discussion about specific characters ensued and
coding was altered. Disagreement emerged on 10 characters. Consensus was reached
on all but two characters. These characters were coded into a grouping: ‘ethnic
minority, but don’t know’ category.
Variables and Analyses
Ethnicity and/ or race of the main characters in each story within the textbooks were
assessed. These findings are then compared to the actual ethnic diversity found in
B.C. and Canada. Though a simple analysis, it is important to publish these findings
since no Canadian research has been published on the topic to date.
While I had originally hoped to focus solely on the objective ethnicity of main
characters, it became quickly evident that this was not possible due to the lack of
pictorial and written reference to ethnicity. In some stories ethnicity could be quickly
determined by viewing the main character’s dress or background images. For
example, the ethnicity of Aboriginal characters tended to be most clearly depicted
through the illustration of background images and location. In addition, the text of
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the story confirmed Aboriginal ethnicity with reference to various cultural activities
Table 1 Ethnicity of Main Characters
and visits to family members on the reserve. As addressed by MacCann & Woodward
(1977) four decades ago, ethnicity is a difficult concept to measure in children’s
literature. While some stories provided clear reference to ethnicity (through physical
features, clothing and background context), we had to draw on purely ‘racial’
categories for others. Yet still for other characters, they were found to be ‘white
washed’ (having standard clothing and (Caucasian) physical features and merely
colouring characters different skin colours). While these limitations may confound
classification of characters, interestingly the problem itself is indicative of the very
research question I am addressing.
Racial/ ethnic categories were developed based on the literature. Following
Kurtz (1996) each picture was fully examined -not merely the character- in order to
see ethnic/ cultural cues that may be provided in the background of each picture.
Sandefur’s & Moore’s (2004) guidelines on examining appearance (observable race,
name, clothing, hairstyle, weight) and language (language used by characters or
narrator that indicates race/ ethnicity) were used to determine racial/ ethnic
categories.
In stories where ethnicity could not be determined, visual and or written
markers indicated the main character’s ethnicity. In over half of the stories that had
an ethnic minority main character, ethnicity could not be determined and ‘racial’
category was reported.
The number of ethnic minority main characters (stories with one or two main
characters) are examined. While one could report the number of main, secondary,
background or total ethnic
minority characters, I opted to initially examine only main characters since they are
the most significant characters; they have the most power in the story and they tend
to have the most face time. Future research should expand more on character type:
examining the ethnicity of main, secondary and background characters.
Raw frequencies and percentages are provided for the ethnicity of main
characters in the stories that were examined. In addition, percentages of various
ethnic minority groups in BC and Canada are also presented. This data was retrieved
from Census Canada (2011). In addition, t-tests were conducted to determine if ethnic
representation differed by publisher. Two ethnicity-based variables are also t-tested:
the proportion of ethnic minority characters portrayed in each story and the
proportion of ethnic minority groups portrayed in stories.
Results
Ethnicity of Main Characters
Of the 214 stories that were examined, 94 had one main character and 77 stories had
2 main characters. The remaining 43 stories had multiple main characters (three to
five main characters) or no main character (the stories were in a group setting). One
hundred seventy one stories had one or two main characters which represents 206
main characters. Table 1 shows the ethnic breakdown of these main characters.

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Caucasian
African
Brown
Black-brown
Chinese Asian
Aboriginal
Latin
South Asian
Iraqi
Spanish
Not Caucasian, do not
know
Total # Main Characters

Number
125
18
19
4
13
14
2
1
1
1
9

%
60.6
8.7
9.2
1.9
6.3
6.8
0.9
0.4
0.4
0.4
4.4

206

100%

Sixty point six percent of main characters were Caucasian. The Caucasian category
included characters that had ‘white’ skin, but also characters with Western and
Northern European as well as Russian ethnic backgrounds (based on the text).
Nine point two percent of main characters were ‘brown’, 8.7% were African
and 1.9% were ‘brown black’. The category ‘brown’ was developed solely on skin
colour. In this category a large majority of characters appeared to be somewhat
‘American Hispanic’, however this could not be adequately determined. This
category of characters appeared to be ‘white washed’ –looking predominately like
Caucasian characters, but with ‘brown’ skin colour. This category is separate from
the Latin (0.9%) and Spanish (0.4%) categories, which were determined based on
text. The African grouping developed based on the characters’ dark black skin colour
and from text. Some of these characters are African, while others might have been
African American or African Canadian. The ‘brown-black’ category developed solely
based on skin colour. These characters had noticeably darker skin than from the
‘brown’ category, though a lighter skin shade from the African grouping.
The Chinese Asian category represented 6.3% of main characters. These
characters were categorized based on (black) hair colour, box haircut, and physical
facial features in addition to the text. This category is distinguished from the South
Asian category (0.4%), which represented one character from India (based on text).
We could not differentiate characters based on specific ‘Chinese’ cultures (e.g.,
Vietnamese, Tibetan) since reference to specific cultures was not made in the
illustrations nor text.
One Iraqi character was identified via text and represented 0.4% of the
sample.
Aboriginal characters comprised 6.8% of main characters. This category
developed based on text, but also from physical features, clothing, and background
setting apparent in the pictures
The ethnic background of 4.4% (9 characters) characters could not be
determined. Based on their skin colour and physical features they were apart of an
underdetermined (miscellaneous) ethnic minority group.

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It should be noted that when sorting characters based on racial/ ethnic
grouping, there appeared to be a link between textual reference to ethnicity and a
clearer depiction of the ethnic character. When the text made direct references to
specific ethnic groups the illustration of characters was not only clearer, but more
real to life (less cartoon looking). This was the case with some of the African
characters and all Iraqi, Aboriginal, Latin and Spanish characters.
Ethnic Diversity in BC & Canada Compared to Textbook Results
Table 2 compares (the percentage) ethnic diversity in BC, Canada and the ethnic
representation of main characters in the textbook analysis. The results find that the
textbooks do not provide comparable ethnic diversity as found in the general
population –be it BC or Canada.
In two instances –those with Latin American and Arab descent, the ethnic
representation is close to that found in BC and Canada. In the remainder of the
categories the textbook representation far exceeds or under represents the actual
ethnic diversity of the population.
Table 2 Ethnic Diversity in British Columbia and Canada (Census, 2011) Compared to Main
Character’s Ethnicity in School Textbooks

Chinese
South Asian
Filipino
Korean
South East Asian
Japanese
West Asian
Latin American
Black (African)
Multiple Visible Minority
Arab (Iranian)
Aboriginal
‘Brown’
Total

British Columbia
%
9.5
6.1
2.1
1.2
1
0.8
0.7
0.7
0.6
0.6
0.2
4.6
28.1

Canada
%
3.3
4
1.6
0.6
0.9
0.3
0.6
1.2
2.3
0.8
0.1
3.8
23.3

Textbooks
%
Representation
6.3
Under/ Over
0.4
Under
0.00
Under
0.00
Under
0.00
Under
0.00
Under
0.00
Under
0.9
Similar
8.7
Over
6.3*
Over
0.4
Similar
6.8
Over
9.2
39
Over

Characters with Black and Aboriginal ethnic backgrounds are greatly overrepresented in the textbooks. Compared to the Canadian population, Chinese
characters are nearly two times over-represented, though when compared to the BC
population they are under-represented. Black characters are highly over-represented
in the stories: they are 14.5 times over-represented when compared to BC’s
population and nearly four times over-represented in comparison to the Canadian
population. In fact, if we include characters with African ethnicity and Brown-Black
racial features, this represents 10.6% of all main characters –which means that this
group is about 18 times over-represented compared with B.C. demographics and five
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times over-represented compared to Canadian demographics. Aboriginal characters
are also over-represented, though minimally –about 1.5 times and two times overrepresented compared to B.C. and Canadian demographics.
South Asians, Canada’s largest growing ethnic group and B.C.’s largest ethnic
group (Census 2011) are extremely under-represented. Only 0.4% of main characters
had a South Asian ethnicity, though in B.C. this ethnic group represents 6.1% of the
population (and 4.0% of the population in Canada. This is the most striking disparity
noted in Table 5.
There were no identified Filipino, Korean, South East Asian, Japanese or West
Asian characters depicted in the stories, though these groups do comprise a smaller
(albeit existent) proportion of the ethnic composition of BC and Canada.
In some stories, the ethnicity of characters could not be established. Six point
three percent of main characters were of a mixed, unknown ethnic minority status. In
addition, 9.2% of characters were ‘brown’. As stated previously, this brown category
was not associated with a particular ethnicity. These characters tended to have
Caucasian features with brown skin. This ‘white washing’ of characters is a noted
problem in the US children’s literature. A total of 15.5% of characters did not have a
recognizable ethnicity.
Lastly, it was found that compared to Census, ethnic minorities in general
were over-represented in the textbooks. Visible ethnic minorities comprised 39.4% of
main characters in the stories, while ethnic minorities in BC represent 28.1% and
23.3% in Canada. On the surface this appears to be a positive ‘multicultural’ finding,
however as I have illustrated: some groups that are predominant in BC or Canada
were not represented at all while others are significantly under-represented, and in
15.5% of cases the character’s ethnicity could not be determined.
Test of Differences in Ethnic Representations
T tests were conducted to determine if the number of ethnic minority characters and
groups portrayed in stories differed between publishers. No significant betweenpublisher difference was noted when examining ethnic representation (1- the
proportion of ethnic minority characters portrayed in each story or 2- the proportion
of ethnic minority groups portrayed in stories). While the Collections series had only
a slightly lower average proportion of ethnic minority characters (0.34 and 0.33
respectively) and groups (.40 and .41 respectively) that were displayed compared to
the All About the Series stories these differences were not statistically significant. The
results find that ethnic representation in these textbooks is a common problem,
regardless of the publisher.
Limitations
Content analysis is a subjective means of collecting data. While two researchers
conducted the latent content analyses and the racial/ ethnic categorizations made
had a near 1.0 inter-rater reliability (100% match), categorization error could still
exist. With this being said, the focus of this paper is not concerned with reporting
specific percentages but rather reporting the gaping disparities between ethnic
representation in textbooks and actual ethnic representation in the BC and Canadian
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populations. Because of this focus, the influence of categorization error on results is
minimized.
A key limitation in this study is the operationalization of ‘ethnicity.’ While I
would have preferred to discuss true ‘ethnic’ disparities (i.e., examining character’s
subjective and objective cultural identity through text and illustration) this was not
possible since the bulk of stories and their illustrations did not make ethnic reference.
As such, ethnicity was coded based largely on physical traits (skin, eye, hair) and to a
lesser extent on specific ethnic reference (in text or illustration). Again, while this is
an important limitation to note it does not dismiss the fact that main characters in
these stories are not representative of the diversity found in our student population.
Lastly, statistical tests comparing the textbook data with Census data could not be
performed. As a result the statistical significance of the percent differences that I have
identified can not be determined. In many cases, however, the percent differences are
overwhelmingly large –suggesting that these differences are in fact significant.
Discussion
Prevalence of Ethnic Misrepresentation
As illustrated in the results, the ethnic representation of main characters found in
primary level English textbooks that are used in BC is not representative of the BC
nor Canadian populations. What was particularly surprising was the overwhelming
lack of representation of South Asian main characters, given that they are the largest
(in BC) and fastest growing ethnic group in both the province and the country. To
further this, there were absolutely no main characters that were of Filipino, Korean,
South East Asian, Japanese or West Asian ethnicities in any of the stories. Chinese
main characters were under represented according to BC demographics, though overrepresented when contrasted to Canadian demographics. Alternately, ‘Black’ and
Aboriginal characters were over-represented. Characters with black skin were largely
over-represented. In addition, ethnic minority characters whose ethnicity could not
be determined comprised the bulk of main characters. I do not deem these characters
to be bi-products of the ‘melting pot,’ but rather what is referred to as ‘white
washing’: a resemblance of white characters physically, though depicted with brown
skin. Prior to the 1970s, this was a recognized problem in American children’s
literature (Larrick, 1965). In fact, prior to the 1960s in the USA Mendoza and Reese
(2001) explain that children who were not of European or European-American
ancestry were not represented in children’s literature. According to the findings I
have provided, a similar problem plagues the current Canadian children’s stories that
I have reviewed. Over representation of certain ethnic minorities (i.e., Chinese and
Aboriginal ethnicities in contrast to Canadian Census) was also noted. While most
over-representations were not extreme, over-representation of ethnic minorities that
compose our ethnic mosaic is a positive way of creating equality by practicing
equitable representation. In other words, slight over-representations of ethnic
minorities are needed to increase their face time (and therefore messages of
‘importance,’ ‘inclusion’ and ‘power’) in stories. By doing this authors, publishers and
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the school system encourage a positive understanding of ‘self’ and ‘other.’ A large
over-representation of ‘Black’ main characters existed in the stories, that was not
compatible with BC’s nor Canada’s demographics. I purport that over representation
is indicative of American and not Canadian ethnic or racial representation.
In her research on American children’s literature in the 1960s, Larrick (1965)
highlights the discrepancy between the percentage of African Americans in U.S.
society (between 50% -70% in many states during the time) and the fact that only
6.7% of her sample (349 stories out of 5206 stories published in the USA between
1962-1964) were African American. These findings were viewed as appalling and
helped to spur an ethnic focus in children’s literature in the USA. The under
representations reported in this study far supersede what Larrick uncovered only ten
years after the American civil rights movement. It is incomprehensible to understand
these misrepresentations in current Canadian children’s literature, given that we have
been a multicultural nation for nearly thirty years. These misrepresentations are not
acceptable; they not only do an injustice to our children’s education, socialization and
ultimately their well-being, but also to our multicultural agenda and future
development as a nation.
Institutional Racism: Racism by Omission
In Canada racism is a ‘dirty’ word. Despite the fact that various laws (i.e., Canadian
Charter or Rights and Freedoms, 1982) and policies (i.e., Canadian Mutlicultural Act,
1988) have resocialized Canadian institutions and the people, thirty years cannot
wipe clean generations of racist ideology. Based on media reports and conference
dialog, there appears to be a general fear among the majority (Caucasian) group in
discussing racism. Rather, racism is often viewed as something that (ethnic)
minorities bring up, and it is a concept and social problem to be treaded lightly with.
Politics abound in any discussion of racism, though we should not turn our backs to
indictors of racism when they are revealed. The lack of ethnic representation that has
been uncovered in this paper is indicative of a specific form of racism: institutional
racism by omission. Many prefer not to engage in such dialog, however it is necessary
to step forward and embrace the challenges of our time so that we can best socialize
and educate our people and new generations (both children and adults) of Canadians.
“Racism refers to a relatively complex and organized set of ideas and ideals
(ideology) that assert or imply natural superiority of one group over another in terms
of entitlement and privileges, together with the power to put these beliefs into
practice in a way that denies or excludes those who belong to a devalued category”
(Fleras, 2010: 376). To further this, institutional racism is defined as “organizational
policies, programs and practices that openly deny or inadvertently exclude minorities
from full and equal participation” (Fleras, 2010; 374). Racism by omission is racism
that occurs when racism goes unnoticed, thereby denying the existence of a racially
derived issue. Results from this study illustrate that many ethnic minority groups are
either severely under-represented or not represented at all as main characters in the
stories. As main characters, children who are South Asian, Filipino, Korean, South
East Asian, Japanese and West Asian are nearly or completely invisible in these texts
–they are devalued and denied a voice. This is harmful for obvious reasons, though
research finds that children internalize this exclusion and believe that they are
invisible (Cruz-Janzen, 1997). Racism by omission is particularly troublesome since
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many do not see its existence as it tends to be perpetually overlooked, especially in
the case of institutional racism. As Willis-Rivera and Meeker (2002) contend, it is not
just the exclusion or inclusion of people (of colour), but how such norms /other
constitutions continue to perpetuate marginalized thinking which translates into, and
furthers, racist practices” (277). While institutional racism may not be intentional –it
has the same negative effects as racism by commission. Despite Canada’s good efforts
to curb racism, it is manifest in one of our core institutions –the school system.
Racism in any form is dangerous, it harms our childrens’ health and well-being
(George & Bassani, 2013) and society; it needs to be challenged.
Primary School Stakeholders
The finds reported herein inevitably lead us to ask why or how such
misrepresentation could occur. This question is particularly important since its very
presence suggests that the issue of ethnic representation in our children’s textbooks
has fallen through the proverbial cracks. The federal Canadian government spends
billions (approximately 75 billion) of dollars per year on education (in Provincial
transfers and federal programs). The lion’s share of this money goes into the
kindergarten through grade 12 system. As a system that is directly financed by
taxpayers, the answer to this question is in every Canadian’s interest since we rely on
government offices and the education system to provide our children with a high level
education.
There are at least four main stakeholders in primary education (Parents,
Teachers & Schools, Publishers and the general Canadian public) that have the ability
to influence school books. Future research should look to these groups for not only an
understanding of why erroneous ethnic representation continues, but also for support
to advocate change. The onus of primary education lies on all four of these groups, as
they are intricately linked. While there are a variety of players and issues that
collectively enable ethnic misrepresentation, I discuss only the most predominant
below.
Parents
Parents are a key stakeholder in the school system, though they have relatively
limited power in educational decision making. Parents may be involved in their
child’s education in a variety of ways: from helping with homework, attending parentteacher conferences, volunteering in the classroom or school, to sitting on provincial
or school board committees, though as Carnoy, Elmore & Siskin (2013) address,
parent participation varies based on several factors such as: region, school type, level
of education, school district and individual parental attributes. A breath of research
documents parent and family participation in American schools, though for families
that belong to marginalized groups, their participation tends to vary (Hornby &
Lafaele, 2011). For Hornby & Lafaele (2011), they assert that trust between parents,
teachers, the school and or the general school system influences parental
involvement. For parents who feel that they are not in-group members of the school
or classroom, they are less apt to even question the ‘professional’ decisions –such as
textbook choices (Vincent, 1996).
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It is currently unclear how social capital (development of trust and
relationship) influences participation and the degree of parent-education system
engagement in BC or more broadly schools. Research needs to examine parenteducation engagement (at all levels). In doing so, we need to ask if differences in
engagement exist between parents belonging to marginalized groups. This is
particularly important since research finds that it is more difficult for members of a
privileged group to not only recognize inequality, but also to understand or
empathize with inequalities that they do not experience (Katz, 1978; Lawrence, 1998).
Which parents are engaged with the education system and which are not? By
examining this question we may better understand which parents feel they have a
voice in their children’s education, which may shed light on why ethnic
misrepresentation exists in textbooks.
Teachers & Schools
Teachers are the front line adults in the education system, though they have little
autonomy when it comes to purchasing textbooks. In B.C., regardless of whether
teachers recognize (or do not recognize) problems with ethnic representation in the
books, they do not have the authority or finance to order new textbooks. While
teachers may request new (different) textbooks, these orders are the responsibility of
the administrative staff and ultimately the management (principals). Since textbooks
are typically provided to teachers, their choices tend to be limited. In addition,
teachers’ textbook choices are further limited since they should choose from the
Ministry mandated texts. As suggested in this paper, both English textbook series
have ethnic representation issues –and no significant difference was present between
them in terms of representation. This leaves teachers with the option to supplement
stories that showcase ethnic diversity in their classroom (for reading times –but not
as core texts). While research (Bainbridge et al, 1999) and the vast array of teaching
resources (e.g., Wardle, 2007) do suggest that many teachers try to use
supplementary books and stories that are ethnically inclusive, the research that I have
presented does not tell us what books or supplementary books teachers are using.
Research is needed to learn what (text and other reading) books are actually being
used, if teachers acknowledge ethnic representation issues and how teachers identify
with the problem of limited and lack of ethnic representation.i This is a limitation of
this research and needs to be addressed in future studies. In addition, when
addressing these questions, it must also be determined how teachers navigate what
‘ethnic’ and ‘ethnically inclusive’ mean? From my experiences interviewing teachers
and administrators the definition of ‘ethnic’ varies dramatically.
Publishers
While parents and teachers are focal stakeholders in the textbook discussion,
publishers are in some ways at the root of the issue, since they are the frontline
producers of textbooks. While one could argue that publishers are the direct
underlying reason why ethnic representation is not accurately reflected in primary
level English textbooks, this is not truly accurate and somewhat naïve.
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As reported, the results of this research indicated that both publishers did not
provide stories that reflect the ethnicities found amongst British Columbians nor
Canadians. What we don’t know however, is if these publishers offer any other stories
or textbooks that (better) reflect our ethnic mosaic. In addition, we need to examine
what stories other publishers offer? In answering these questions we will be in a
better position to understand the role that publishers play in ethnic
misrepresentation.
While these companies are responsible for publishing these particular texts,
from an economic standpoint, they are a business that sells a good. As pointed out by
Larrick (1965) some 55 years ago, while there are limited to no complaints and buyers
for such books, publishers will continue to market and sell such textbooks. Have
teachers, principals, and school officials asked for better ethnic representation in
their textbooks? Do they recognize that a problem exists? Does this problem all come
down to budgets? (It would cost millions of dollars to replace stories and textbooks
that are ethnically representative of British Columbians.) Much can be said on this
last point, as capitalism advocates the status quo; interestingly this is exactly what the
current textbooks are teaching children.
Canadian Culture
There are three main aspects of Canadian culture (the last stake holder) that
influence primary school textbooks in British Columbia: Americanization,
Marginalization of Children in Society and Multiculturalism.
Americanization
Based on the stories that were examined in this paper, evidence suggests that more of
an American ethnic representation is being portrayed. Recall, 8.7% of main
characters were ‘Black’ –which is more inline with the US representation, as 11.3% of
the US population according to Census Bureau (2008) is ‘Black’ or ‘African
American.’ In addition, 9.2% of characters had ‘brown’ skin but no traceable
ethnicity –which bares a resemblance to the ‘Hispanic’ or ‘Latino’ culture that is
prevalent in the USA.
In regards to the over-representation of ‘Black’ main characters, it should be
noted that in the Toronto region 8.5% of the population reported themselves as
‘Black’ in the 2011 Census (2011b). While this approximates the representation found
in the textbooks, it is unlikely that the publishers intentionally tried to match ethnic
representation of their stories with Toronto Census. None of the other ethnic
groupings approximated Census in the Toronto region.
Canadian scholars have a long-standing concern with Americanization as the
influence that the United States of America has had on Canada has been widely
studied and debated (Collins, 1990; Hurting, 2002; Moffat, 1972). Though a unique
Canadian culture exists, there is no question as to the influence that American media
has had and continues to have on Canadian culture. Despite Federal agencies (such as
the Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission) legislating
protectionist policies over media –American media (which includes books) is highly
prevalent throughout the country. Future research needs to examine the
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Americanization of Canadian (primary) textbooks. In doing so, the issue of ‘Canadian
content’ needs to be explored and defined. In reviewing the stories for this research, a
serendipitous finding was revealed: What was meant by ‘Canadian content’ varied in
its definition –ranging from merely a Canadian author, to a beaver or Mounty
sketched into the story, to an elaborate story of cultural festivals in various Canadian
regions. Research also needs to explore to what extent Canadian content protectionist policies- are being maintained and evaluated in children’s textbooks.
Marginalization of Children
Children are a marginalized group in Canada, though this is not specific to Canada.
Fellow child researchers and advocates define (Bagley & Young, 1988; Bassani, 2009;
Carpenter, 1996; Corsaro, 2005) children as a marginalized group: they lack the
power, the authority, and often the agency to deal with issues that affect them. As
Corsaro (2005) maintains, “children are pushed to the margins of the social structure
by more powerful adults” (2005: 5). As a result of marginalization many issues to do
with children are left unexplored or at best are given minimal attention. Carpenter
(1996) stated it best when she said “the fact that Canadian scholarship on children’s
lore is limited and more descriptive than analytical tends to reinforce perceptions
within academe of children’s culture as ephemeral, whereas the failure to publish it
more widely reveals ignorance among the general populace of its significance and,
most important here, its appeal for children and accordingly it potential to effect
attitude change” (56). While Carpenter is discussing children’s lore, and not
Canadian children’s textbooks or literature in general, the same arguments can be
made since children and the culture surrounding childhood are marginalized there is
widespread lack of knowledge in both academia and the general population
concerning the current state of affairs of primary level textbooks (and most matters in
which children are effected!).
We live in a society where children’s (those under the age of 18 or 19
depending on jurisdiction) agency has continually been eroded. It is not shocking
then that such an educational disservice has gone on for decades.
Multiculturalism
Canada is praised with being the first multicultural nation and is an international
leader for those countries hoping to espouse official multiculturalism.
Multiculturalism has been officially instituted for almost 30 years yet ethnic
minorities are marginalized, as evidenced by this research. Unfortunately, this
paradox is not difficult to explain: while Canada embraces multiculturalism –there is
no one completely accepted multicultural model (conservative, liberal or plural) or
meaning (multiculturalism as: a fact, an ideology, a government policy, a set of
practices and a critical discourse). Because there is no one ‘correct’ definition or
complete understanding of multiculturalism confusion has abounded.
While it is not within the boundaries of this paper to discuss and debate the
various multicultural models and agendas –many Canadian scholars would agree that
such malleability has had, at times a negative influence on the education system and
more specifically children’s literature (Carpenter, 1996). Certainly, multiculturalism
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has had an overarching positive influence on education in Canada but when trying to
understand why ethnic representation is so misaligned we must recognize that the
Multiculturalism Act does not have the legal weight to radically alter the (provincial)
education systems in Canada. That is to say, The Act does not dictate to curriculum
nor textbooks. Rather, it asserts cultural rights that Canadians are entitled to
(Canadian Multiculturalism Act, 1988); the Act does not seek to “implement”
multiculturalism into the education systems, but rather to “encourage and assist
institutions to project the multicultural reality of Canada in their activities” (CMA,
1988: 5(1)(a)). Due to the vary nature of the Act, it is difficult not only to enforce, but
evaluate the degree to which multiculturalism is being employed in any given
institution.
In response to why ethnicity is misrepresented in primary level English
textbooks I have discussed four key interrelated stakeholders. The purpose was not to
give an account but rather to provide a starting point and acknowledge that more
information is needed before we can even come to the table to discuss the ‘why’.
Recommendations
Throughout the paper I have made a series of recommendations, though foremost
what is most needed is more research that examines ethnic representations in
Canadian children’s textbooks. While a great deal of American literature exists,
research that focuses on other countries is miniscule at best and dated. Our current
research focus should first be directed towards primary level textbooks, since this is
the onset of a child’s formal learning career. At a basic level, research is needed that
exams ethnic representation (in terms of proportions) of all Ministry mandated
(primary) textbooks and readers, across all subject matters (Math, Science, and so
forth). This should be viewed as the starting point in assessing the presence of
institutional racism within textbooks. After issues of representation have been
determined more detailed analyses that examine power differentials, such as - how
characters are portrayed, who holds power in the stories, character development, and
so forth are needed.
A few central recommendations can be directed specifically to two key
stakeholders: The Ministry of Education and Teacher Programs. Both of these groups
could make significant changes that would help to improve ethnic representation. It
would be beneficial for the Ministry to have an external group of experts, such as an
outside academic network or group of researchers that specialize in curriculum
studies to recommend textbooks every time a Ministry review occurs. Currently, the
review and recommendation of textbooks is left to an internal committee that is
largely comprised of teachers. If an outside (objective, specialist) group were to
recommend textbooks to the internal committee this would hopefully insure that
more ethnic (and other, i.e. ability) inclusive textbooks were chosen, but it would be a
cost saving measure in the long term since new books would be of a higher quality
due to their inclusiveness. This might mean that teachers would not have to order as
many supplemental books to make up for ethnic (and other) disparities. This in turn
would free more teacher time, both in and outside of the classroom.
In November 2015 the BC Ministry of Education put forth curriculum changes
that will be made to the K-12 education system in the province, starting in the 2016Red Feather Journal Volume 6 Issue 2 Fall 2015

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2017 school year. The Ministry has stated that the new curriculum is in response ‘to
the demanding world our students are entering. Transformation in curriculum will
help teachers create learning environments that are both engaging and personalized
for students.’ (BC Ministry of Education, 2015b). It is difficult to know how these
provincial changes will alter the use of books recommended by the Ministry. The
message that comes across in the media and when discussing the matter with primary
school teachers is that textbooks will be refrained from being used. Primary teachers
have speculated that the provincial changes will have little impact on the primary
curriculum. In due time this will need to be examined.
Teacher training needs to also be examined since it has the opportunity to
educate future teachers in regards to ethnicity, culture and multiculturalism (and
other marginalities). Similar to other provinces in Canada, B.C. teacher programs are
not standardized. Certainly, each of the accredited programs share common
requirements since individuals must apply to the College of Teachers to obtain
teaching certification, however none of the programs (nor entry requirements)
require students to take a class on ethnic diversity in the classroom. Such a class has
much potential to educate new teachers specifically about textbook limitations and
their students. It is not enough to assume that student-teachers know (based on
program prerequisites) about and understand key issues surrounding culture,
ethnicity and multiculturalism in Canada and their local area. If such knowledge was
made clear from the outset for student teachers, they would be better equipped to
teach in multicultural classrooms and better prepared to discuss such issues with
future principals (the gatekeepers who make the final textbook ordering decisions) as
well as publishers.
Conclusion
This latent content analysis of children’s English textbooks has found considerable
misrepresentation of ethnicity as compared to the BC and Canadian populations.
Such vast errors should be taken seriously and are indicative of institutional racism
by omission. While this form of racism tends not to be intentional, it can be equally
harmful to children, whether they are ethnic minorities or not. Changes are needed;
stories in children’s textbooks must speak to all students and not marginalize
students.
In Canada, a nation that espouses multiculturalism and anti-racist rhetoric,
institutional racism in the education system needs to assessed. This study has only
examined three grade levels in one province, but I suspect that the same trends are
prevalent across the nation. In this paper I have only spoken to the issue of voice –
who is being represented. Future studies need to delve into issues of character agency
and power. Initial ethnic by power and agency analyses of the main characters in the
stories reported on this paper suggest a similar trend –that ethnic minorities have
less power and agency.
The stories that have been reviewed are not without merit. Marginal overrepresentation of Chinese and Aboriginal main characters was detected. In order to
encourage equality, such equitable ethnic representation is needed. Stories in
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textbooks are called to reasonably over represent ethnic groups and characters that
make up our Canadian and British Columbian mosaic.
Nearly fifty years ago Larrick (1965), in her revolutionary research on the allwhite world of children’s literature, stated that “white supremacy in children’s
literature will be abolished when authors, editors, publishers, and booksellers decide
that they need not submit to bigots” (10). While I don’t maintain that we are still in
an age of white supremacy, the findings form this research have illustrated that the
problems of misrepresentation and limited representation of ethnic groups in
primary level English textbooks in BC bears a striking resemblance to the problems
highlighted by Larrick over half a century ago. I hope that the reader will respond to
my work –whether it be positive or negative. Dialogue is needed. Inequality is not
inevitable--it is socially constructed. The needed changes are not inconceivable, but
they will take time and energy from our academic community and key stakeholders:
to do or support research and to advocate for change. Policy makers, publishers and
teachers need to be informed. Schools will inevitably purchase books and we do not
have a shortage of illustrators nor writers in Canada. Consequently, there is no reason
why textbooks can not be published that are inclusive of all children (regardless of
ethnicity, race, religion, sexuality, ability and so forth).
Awareness, and most importantly understanding, needs to be brought to
government offices, the Ministry of Education, educational management, teachers,
publishers and most especially parents. It is not enough to merely be aware of this
problem--action is required. The ethnic misrepresentations displayed in the stories
that I have reviewed speak to the shortcomings of multiculturalism in our country
and the inequalities that exist within the education system itself: inequalities that
privilege some groups over others. An equal, or even better yet, equitable
representation of ethnic minorities is needed in children’s primary textbooks. Until
this happens, students will continue to be socialized with the image that some
(ethnicities) people are privileged and should be privileged over others. They will
continue to learn that the education system (and all those that work in the system)
sees some people as ‘invisible’, as irrelevant or less important. Regardless of if
students are Aboriginal, seventh generation Canadians or first generation Canadians
from India, the Philippines, Hong Kong, or from any of a number of countries -is this
the message that we want to give our children?

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i

In the process of conducting the research for this manuscript I did attempt to collect this information from a
sample of schools, however I was blocked by a key gate keeper.

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